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Figure 3 in Pliocene marine mammals from the Whalers Bluff Formation of Portland, Victoria, Australia

Figure 3. Mysticeti and Physeteridae from the Pliocene Whalers Bluff Formation, Portland. A, Balaenidae gen. et sp. indet., incomplete right periotic, NMV P218269, in ventrolateral view (AC); B, Balaenopteridae gen. et sp. indet., incomplete right periotic, NMV P218268, in ventral view (AC); C, cf. Physeter sp., apical crown of tooth, NMV P218298, in side view (AC). Scale bars equal 10 mm.

Figure 7 in Pliocene marine mammals from the Whalers Bluff Formation of Portland, Victoria, Australia

Figure 7. Delphinus sp. or Stenella sp. (Pliocene Whalers Bluff Formation, Portland, Victoria, Australia), left periotic, NMV P218265 (AC). A, ventral view. B, cranial view. C, medial view. D, lateral view. Scale bar equals 10 mm.

Figure 2 in Pliocene marine mammals from the Whalers Bluff Formation of Portland, Victoria, Australia

Figure 2. Stratigraphic correlation of the Portland fossil marine mammal-bearing formations with selected major late Neogene marine mammalbearing units. Stratigraphy and geochronology are from Barnes (1973, 1977, 1984, 1998), Muizon and DeVries (1985), Muizon and Bellon (1986), Gottfried et al. (1994), Whitmore (1994), Prothero (1998), Fordyce (2002a), Fordyce et al. (2002), Fitzgerald (2004b), Muizon et al. (2004), Barnes et al. (2005) and Gradstein et al. (2004). Abbreviations: AGL, Pisco Formation, Aguada de Lomas level; BL, Batesford Limestone; BRS, Black Rock Sandstone; CLB, Pisco Formation, Cerro la Bruja; ELJ, Pisco Formation, El Jahuay level; GBF, Grange Burn Formation; LAF, Lower Member, Almejas Formation; MTM, Pisco Formation, Montemar level; SAO, Pisco Formation, Sacaco level; SAS, Pisco Formation, Sud-Sacaco level; SDF, San Diego Formation; UAF, Upper Member, Almejas Formation; WBF, Whalers Bluff Formation.

Figure 10 in Pliocene marine mammals from the Whalers Bluff Formation of Portland, Victoria, Australia

Figure 10.?Phocidae gen. et sp. indet. (Pliocene Whalers Bluff Formation, Portland, Victoria, Australia), incomplete left mandible, NMV P218465 (AC). A, dorsal view. B, lateral view. C, medial view. Black arrow in B points to mental foramen. Scale bar equals 10 mm

Figure 1 in Pliocene marine mammals from the Whalers Bluff Formation of Portland, Victoria, Australia

Figure 1. Locality of Portland in Victoria, south-east Australia, and the Portland fossil marine vertebrate localities. Fossils have been collected as float along the beach and from adjacent cliffs between Dutton Way and Portland Harbour. Black shading indicates areas of cliff outcrop of the Whalers Bluff Formation.

Figure 4 in Pliocene marine mammals from the Whalers Bluff Formation of Portland, Victoria, Australia

Figure 4. Miocene to Recent Kogiidae tympanics. A-B, Kogiidae gen. et sp. indet. (Pliocene Whalers Bluff Formation, Portland, Victoria, Australia), incomplete left tympanic, NMV P218407 (AC). C-D, Kogiidae gen. et sp. undet. (Lower Pliocene Yorktown Formation, Lee Creek Mine, North Carolina, U.S.A.), incomplete left tympanic, USNM 251118. E-F, Scaphokogia cochlearis (Upper Miocene Pisco Formation, Aguada de Lomas level, Arequipa Department, Peru), incomplete left tympanic, USNM 452993. G-H, Kogiidae gen. et sp. undet. (Lower Pliocene Yorktown Formation, Lee Creek Mine, North Carolina, U.S.A.), incomplete right tympanic, USNM 183008. I-J, Kogia breviceps (Recent, Shelley Beach, Victoria, Australia), incomplete left tympanic, NMV C24976. A, C, E, G, I, all in dorsal view. B, D, F, H, J, all in ventral view. Scale bars equal 10 mm.

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Individual behaviour, growth, survival and vulnerability to hunting in a large mammal

<p>Humans have exploited wild animals for thousands of years. Recent studies indicate that harvest-induced selection on life-history and morphological traits may lead to ecological and evolutionary changes. Less attention has been given to harvest-induced selection on behavioural traits, especially in terrestrial systems. We assessed in a wild population of large terrestrial mammals whether decades of hunting led to harvest-induced selection on trappability, a proxy of risk-taking behaviour. We investigated links between trappability, horn growth and survival across individuals in early life and quantified the correlations between early life trappability and horn growth with availability to hunters and probability of being shot. We found positive among-individual correlations between early life trappability and horn growth, early life trappability and survival, and early life horn growth and survival. Faster growing individuals were more likely to be available to hunters and shot at a young age. We found no correlations between early life trappability and availability to hunters or probability of being shot. Our results show that correlations between behaviour and growth can occur in wild terrestrial population but may be context dependent. This result highlights the difficulty in formulating general predictions about harvest-induced selection on behaviour, which can be affected by species ecology, harvesting regulations, and harvesting methods used. Future studies should investigate mechanisms linking physiological, behavioural, and morphological traits and how this effects harvest vulnerability to evaluate the potential for harvest to drive selection on behaviour in wild animal populations.</p>

FIG. 39 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG. 39. Sipalocyon gracilis AMNH VP-9254 (Hathliacynidae, Sparassodonta), adult caudal cranium, selected coronal segments in rostrocaudal order (data source, table 2). As in extant marsupials, large carotid canals probably carried internal carotid vein as well as artery. However, channels for transverse canal veins resembling those of most marsupials or Prothylacynus (fig. 40A) are not in evidence. Small channels on lip of extracranial carotid foramen, thought by Archer (1976) to be possible transverse foramina, are for components of nerve of pterygoid canal and another structure that cannot be securely identified (features 1, 2; cf. fig. 38). Right and left internal carotid veins could have interacted with each other and with caudal portion of transverse basisphenoid sinus via features 3 and 4 (cf. fig. 38D). Key: AS, alisphenoid; BS, basisphenoid; cc, carotid canal; ctbs, caudal portion of transverse basisphenoid sinus; encf, endocranial carotid foramen; encg, endocranial carotid groove; excf, exocranial carotid foramen; fo, foramen ovale; hpf, hypophyseal fossa; mdnc, canal for mandibular nerve (to foramen ovale); mxns, sulcus for maxillary nerve; onvs, sulcus for ophthalmic neurovascular bundle; rtbs, rostral portion of transverse basisphenoid sinus; SQ, squamosal; 1, pterygoid canal; 2, sulcus of unknown function; 3, small canaliculus joining right and left carotid canals (presumably venous, for anastomosis between internal carotid veins); 4, small connector between 3 and rest of caudal transverse basisphenoid sinus; possibly retained portion of notochord canal.

FIG. 32. A and B, Perameles nasuta AMNH M-160199 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG. 32. A and B, Perameles nasuta AMNH M-160199 (Peramelidae, Peramelemorphia), adult caudal cranium in (respectively) ventral and right oblique lateral views. C and D, Perameles nasuta AMNH M-154403, damaged adult caudal cranium, showing (respectively) endocranial floor and closeup of left carotid groove. In A

FIG. 36. A and B, Dipodomys deserti AMNH M-182081 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG. 36. A and B, Dipodomys deserti AMNH M-182081 (Dipodomyinae, Heteromyidae, Rodentia), adult caudal cranium in ventral and endocranial aspects; C, Galago demidovii AMNH M-89605 (Galagidae, Primates), adult caudal cranium in ventral aspect. Despite highly derived aspect of kangaroo rat skull, mesocranial position of foramina for sphenopterygoid veins suggests that latter may arise from emissaria comparable to those giving rise to transverse canal veins in marsupials. In Galago and other lorisiforms, in addition to ascending pharyngeal artery, rostral carotid foramen transmits large vein with same relations as internal carotid vein. Key: bcf, basicapsular fenestra (includes piriform fenestra and carotid foramen; see Brylski, 1990); BO, basioccipital; BS, basisphenoid; ccf, caudal carotid foramen; eam, external acoustic meatus; EC, ectotympanic; fm, foramen magnum; fo, foramen ovale; hf, hypoglossal foramen; hpf, hypophyseal fossa; jf, jugular foramen; pglf, postglenoid foramen; pgli, postglenoid incisure; PS, presphenoid; PT, pterygoid; rcf, rostral carotid foramen; spf, sphenopterygoid foramen (=?transverse canal foramen); stf, stapedial foramen (according to Howell, 1932; Brylski, 1990); tgf, fossa for trigeminal ganglion.

FIG. 28. Sarcophilus laniarius AMNH M-65673 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG. 28. Sarcophilus laniarius AMNH M-65673 (Dasyuridae, Dasyuromorphia), adult caudal cranium in A, ventral, B, oblique lateral, and C, oblique endocranial aspects; and D, S. harrisii, venogram (after Shah and Nicol, 1989: fig. 2). (Although catalogued as S. laniarius, usually regarded as an extinct taxon, AMNH M-65673 came to the AMNH in 1913 from New York Zoological Society, and is therefore more likely S. harrisii.) Note asymmetry within endocranial carotid grooves—caudal branch present on left side only. Plexiform nature of vessels identified in original venogram as internal jugular veins, as well as their apparent medial convergence, suggest that they may instead represent ventral petrosal sinus and its extracranial continuation, seen in anastomotic union with internal vertebral venous plexus. True internal jugular veins are probably situated more laterally (asterisk). Key: A–C: AS, alisphenoid; astp, tympanic process of alisphenoid; ats, sulcus for auditory tube; bjs, basijugular sulcus; BO, basioccipital; BS, basisphenoid; cbf, caudal branch foramen; cchf, caudal condylohypoglossal foramen; eam, external acoustic meatus; EC, ectotympanic; ET, ethmoid; encf, endocranial carotid foramen; encg, endocranial carotid groove; etbs, eminence of transverse basicranial sinus; evpf, foramen for extracranial continuation of ventral petrosal sinus; excf, exocranial carotid foramen; fo, foramen ovale; fr, foramen rotundum; FR, frontal; jf, jugular foramen; onvs, sulcus for ophthalmic neurovascular array; mxns, sulcus for maxillary nerve; pbs, presphenoid-basisphenoid synchondrosis; PE, petrosal;

FIG. 37. A–C, Galago demidovii MPIH 120 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG. 37. A–C, Galago demidovii MPIH 120 (Galagidae, Primates), near-term fetus; D, Microcebus murinus MPIH 1962/57 (Cheirogaleidae, Primates), fetus; and E, Elephantulus fuscipes MPIH 311/E1 (Macroscelididae, Macroscelidea), fetus. Coronal sections, all to same scale. In A and B (ss. 961, 979, sides rev.), rete mirabile with ascending pharyngeal artery, internal carotid vein, and basicranial venous plexus. In C and D (ss. 1285; 91/2/3), relatively large internal jugular vein, typical of strepsirhines, receives multiply branching basicranial venous plexus. In E (s. 1558), mesocranial vascular arrangements in sengis are quite different from those seen in strepsirhines: vein (asterisk) running across tympanic roof to accompany internal carotid artery into endocranium originates from prootic sinus, therefore not homologous with internal carotid vein. Key: AC, auditory capsule; acc, alicochlear commissure; apa, ascending pharyngeal artery; AS, alisphenoid; BS, basisphenoid; bvp, basicranial venous plexus; C1, atlas vertebra; cat, cartilage of auditory tube; cbca, cerebral carotid artery; cca, common carotid artery; CEN, caudal entotympanic; cptp, caudal tympanic process of petrosal; cs, cavernous sinus; EC, ectotympanic; ecvr, extracranial arterial rete; ejv, external jugular vein; EO, exoccipital; GO, gonial; gpn, greater petrosal nerve; hp, hypophysis; ica (pra), internal carotid artery (promontorial artery); icn, internal carotid nerve; icv, internal carotid vein (= internal carotid venous plexus); ijv, internal jugular vein; MC, meckelian cartilage; mdn, mandibular nerve; PE, petrosal; pglv, postglenoid vein; pr, promontorium; REN, rostral entotympanic; rssa, ramus superior of stapedial artery; STH, stylohyal; stm, stapedius muscle; tg, trigeminal ganglion; tmc, tympanic cavity; tt, tegmen tympani; ttm, tensor tympani muscle; vg, vagus ganglion; vps, ventral petrosal sinus.

FIG. 27. Dasyurus hallucatus TMM M-6921 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG. 27. Dasyurus hallucatus TMM M-6921 (Dasyuridae, Dasyuromorphia), adult caudal cranium, selected coronal segments in rostrocaudal order (data source, table 2). In A–C, rostral transverse basisphenoid sinus inflates endocranial surface of basisphenoid, forms compound junction with rostral branches of transverse canals. In D, caudal branch foramina open into endocranium on rostral margin of carotid grooves (arrows). However, as no definite trackway for this vein can be detected, actual course not certain. Key: AS, alisphenoid; astp, tympanic process of alisphenoid; bcf, basicapsular fenestra; BS, basisphenoid;?cbs, assumed track of caudal branch of transverse canal; cc, carotid canal; ctbs, caudal portion of transverse basisphenoid sinus; encf, endocranial carotid foramen; encg, endocranial carotid groove; etbs, eminence of transverse basisphenoid sinus; hpf, hypophyseal fossa; junc, junction of transverse canals; le, lateral extension of transverse basisphenoid sinus; mxns, sulcus for maxillary nerve; onvs, sulcus for ophthalmic neurovascular array; rbtc, rostral branches of transverse canal; rtbs, rostral portion of trans-

FIG 40. Prothylacynus patagonicus YPM VPPU-15700 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG 40. Prothylacynus patagonicus YPM VPPU-15700 (Borhyaenoidea, Sparassodonta), adult specimen, endocast reconstruction showing osteological features associated with pericarotid venous network and related vasculature (data source, table 2; color key, fig. 4). Views: A, ventral; B, same, with transverse basisphenoid sinus superimposed; C, oblique right lateral; D, closeup of transverse canals, ventral aspect; E, closeup of transverse canals, rostral aspect; F, horizontal section through transverse canals and mesocranium; G, ventral and H, left ventrolateral surfaces of intact caudal cranium. In A–F, features 1–4

FIG. 41. Prothylacynus patagonicus YPM VPPU-15700 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG. 41. Prothylacynus patagonicus YPM VPPU-15700 (Borhyaenoidea, Sparassodonta), adult caudal cranium, selected coronal segments in rostrocaudal order (data source, table 2). Rostral branches of transverse canals (features 1–4, cf. fig. 40A, D) are situated relatively more rostrally than in extant marsupials. However, they connect with transverse basisphenoid sinus and carotid canals via caudal branches as well as interstitial canaliculi, similar to conditions in certain marsupials. In B, asterisk indicates dorsally directed interstitial canaliculus originating from transverse canal. Key: AS, alisphenoid; br, breakage; BS, basisphenoid; cbtc, caudal branch of transverse canal; cc, carotid canal; ctbs, caudal portion of transverse basisphenoid sinus; encf, endocranial carotid foramen;?hpf, hypophyseal fossa; junc1, junc2, junctions of rostral branches of transverse canals; mxnc, canal for maxillary nerve; mxns, sulcus for maxillary nerve; obf, fossa for olfactory lobes; onvs, sulcus for ophthalmic neurovascular array; PT, pterygoid; ptc, pterygoid canal; rtbs, rostral portion of transverse basisphenoid sinus; SQ, squamosal.

FIG. 24. Vombatus ursinus AMNH M-176103 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG. 24. Vombatus ursinus AMNH M-176103 (Vombatidae, Diprotodontia), adult caudal cranium in A, ventral; B, oblique caudolateral, and C, endocranial aspects. In C, RBTC canals are notably large (fig. 25B) and sharply define rostral border of deep hypophyseal fossa. Key: astp, tympanic process of alisphenoid; bjs, basijugular sulcus; BO, basioccipital; BS, basisphenoid; cbf, foramen for caudal branch of transverse canal vein; cc, carotid canal; ccs, exocranial sulcus leading to carotid canal; cchf, caudal condylohypoglossal foramen; cpf, craniopharyngeal foramen; cspf, craniospinal foramen; encg, endocranial carotid groove; etcl, eminence formed by junction of rostral branches of transverse canals; evpf, foramen for extracranial continuation of

FIG. 20. Osphranter robustus AMNH M-80171 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG. 20. Osphranter robustus AMNH M-80171 (Macropodidae, Diprotodontia), juvenile caudal cranium, selected coronal segments in rostrocaudal order (data source, table 2). A–F, Conjectured arrangement of mesocranial blood vessels (red, arterial only; blue, venous only), sizes exaggerated for clarity. Macropodids often have multiple transverse canal foramina (e.g., Notamacropus, fig. 18B). In this specimen, accessory foramina (arrow in A) are tiny and open into cancellous tissue, but do not form recognizable junction or communicate directly with endocranium or much larger main foramen (cf. Trichosurus, fig. 22A, B). Nevertheless, they may qualify as RBTCs. In C–F, external apertures for main transverse canal and carotid canal can be seen passing through floor of endocranial carotid groove, where their pathways merge. As a result there is no separate caudal branch foramen because entire trunk consists of caudal branch vein. Whether it retains its separate identify or anastomoses with internal carotid vein in carotid groove as suggested in C (?icv + cbv) is unknown. In any case, in this reconstruction internal carotid vein is shown as departing as a separate vessel through main transverse canal foramen, as in other taxa. Key: AS, alisphenoid; bbs, basisphenoid-basioccipital synchondrosis; BS, basisphenoid; cbf, caudal branch foramen; cbv, caudal branch vein; cc, carotid canal; cs/ov, opthalmic vein entering cavernous sinus; cs/vps, cavernous sinus releasing ventral petrosal sinus; ctbs, caudal portion of transverse basisphenoid sinus; encf, endocranial carotid foramen; encg, endocranial carotid groove; fo, foramen ovale; hpf, hypophyseal fossa; ica, internal carotid artery; icv, internal carotid vein;?icv + cbv, possible anastomosis of caudal branch vein of transverse canal and internal carotid vein; le, lateral extension of transverse basisphenoid sinus; mca, middle cerebral artery; mxns, suclus for maxillary nerve; oa, ophthalmic artery; ov, ophthalmic vein; PT, pterygoid; ptc, pterygoid canal; rtbs, rostral portion of transverse basisphenoid sinus; SQ, squamosal; tcf, transverse canal foramen; tgf, trigeminal ganglion fossa; ttcv, trunk transverse canal vein; vps, ventral petrosal sinus.

FIG. 35. Notoryctes typhlops AMNH M–202103 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG. 35. Notoryctes typhlops AMNH M–202103 (Notoryctidae, Notoryctemorphia), adult caudal cranium, selected coronal segments in rostrocaudal order (data source, table 2). In A and B, rostral portion of transverse basisphenoid sinus and transverse canal are fully integrated. In C and D, roof of transverse basisphenoid sinus bears a large opening (double asterisks), presumably for a venous connection, although given its rostral location it is probably not related to hypophyseal fossa. In E and F, transverse basicranial sinus continues caudally as a pair of semidistinct large pneumatic chambers. On right side a small tube for caudal branch, originating from carotid canal, opens into ipsilateral chamber, but ends quickly. In G, partition (single asterisk) within carotid canal defines two channels; lateral one leads into small tube in F, medial one into endocranial carotid foramen. Key: astp, tympanic process of alisphenoid; BS, basisphenoid; cbf, caudal branch foramen; cbtc, possible conduit for caudal branch of transverse canal; cc, carotid canal; ccs, sulcus leading into carotid canal; ctbs, caudal portion of transverse basisphenoid sinus; encf, endocranial carotid foramen; hpf, hypophyseal

FIG. 31. Thylacinus cynocephalus NMB c.2526 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG. 31. Thylacinus cynocephalus NMB c.2526 (Thylacinidae, Dasyuromorphia), adult caudal cranium, selected coronal segments in rostrocaudal order (data source, table 2). In A and B, apart from endocranial apertures of carotid canals, there are no additional openings in endocranial floor and no evidence of transverse canal junction rostral to hypophyseal fossa. These facts are consistent with rostral branch of transverse canal vein being absent, and caudal branch sharing foramen with internal carotid neurovascular bundle. In C–F, two carotid and two transverse canals briefly coalesce to form composite space (asterisk). Whether this coalescence occurs in other thylacine skulls is likely but poorly documented. Key: AS, alisphenoid; astp, tympanic process of alisphenoid; bcf, basicapsular fenestra; BS, basisphenoid; cc, carotid canal; co, cochlea; cspf, craniospinal foramen; ctbs, caudal portion of transverse basisphenoid sinus; encf, endocranial carotid foramen; EO, exoccipital; evpf, foramen for extra-

FIG. 19 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG. 19. Notamacropus eugenii ZIUT HL 29 mm (Macropodidae, Diprotodontia), perinatal specimen, stained coronal sections in rostrocaudal order. A, Carotid canal, showing internal carotid artery enveloped by cavernous sinus/internal carotid vein (s. 182.02.02); B, Pharyngeal and pterygoid venous plexuses, internal carotid vein (s. 184.04.03) C, Midcochlear region, showing plexiform basicranial venous plexus (s. 196.03.03). In A, inside basisphenoid note anastomosis of internal carotid vein with a vein possibly representing caudal branch of transverse canal vein (red pointer). Key: AC, auditory capsule; AS, alisphenoid; at, auditory tube; BO, basisphenoid; BS, basisphenoid; bvp, basicranial venous plexus; cca, common carotid artery; cs, cavernous sinus; dcg, dorsal cervical ganglion; EC, ectotympanic; GO, gonial; ica, internal carotid artery; icn, internal carotid nerve; icv, internal carotid vein; lcm, longus capitis muscle; lpm, levator veli palatini muscle; lpn, lesser petrosal nerve; lptm, lateral pterygoid muscle; MC, meckelian cartilage; MD, mandible; mdn, mandibular nerve; mptm, medial pterygoid muscle; mxv, maxillary vein; og, otic ganglion; pal, processus alaris; pvp, pterygoid venous plexus; SH, stylohyal; tg, trigeminal ganglion; tmc, tympanic cavity; tpm, tensor veli palatini muscle; vav, ventral alveolar vein; vps, ventral petrosal sinus.