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Figure 3 from: Ampai N, Wood Jr PL, Stuart BL, Aowphol A (2020) Integrative taxonomy of the rock-dwelling gecko Cnemaspis siamensis complex (Squamata, Gekkonidae) reveals a new species from Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, southern Thailand. ZooKeys 932: 129-159. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.932.50602
Figure 3 Male holotype (ZMKU R 00828) of Cnemaspis lineatubercularis sp. nov. from Wang Mai Pak Waterfall, Lan Saka District, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, Thailand.
Figure 2 from: Ampai N, Wood Jr PL, Stuart BL, Aowphol A (2020) Integrative taxonomy of the rock-dwelling gecko Cnemaspis siamensis complex (Squamata, Gekkonidae) reveals a new species from Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, southern Thailand. ZooKeys 932: 129-159. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.932.50602
Figure 2 A The single best maximum likelihood tree of the mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 (ND2) gene and flanking tRNAs from geckos of the genera Cnemaspis, Cyrtodactylus and Hemidactylus, shown in full view B map illustrating the localities of Cnemaspis siamensis group samples used in this study and C close-up view of the C. siamensis group. Support values at nodes are bootstrap values from a Maximum Likelihood analysis of the same dataset followed by posterior probabilities of the Bayesian Inference analysis.
Figure 1 from: Ampai N, Wood Jr PL, Stuart BL, Aowphol A (2020) Integrative taxonomy of the rock-dwelling gecko Cnemaspis siamensis complex (Squamata, Gekkonidae) reveals a new species from Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, southern Thailand. ZooKeys 932: 129-159. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.932.50602
Figure 1 Results of principal component analysis (PCA), and clustering by discriminant function of principal component analysis (DAPC) of 15 morphological variables for 47 individuals of five Cnemaspis species (C. lineatubercularis sp. nov., C. adangrawi, C. chanardi, C. omari, and C. siamensis) APCA scatter plot of PC1 and PC2 showing morphometric differentiation among five species in the siamensis group BDAPC ordination of all samples showing interspecific variation among five species in the siamensis group.
Figure 9 from: Ampai N, Wood Jr PL, Stuart BL, Aowphol A (2020) Integrative taxonomy of the rock-dwelling gecko Cnemaspis siamensis complex (Squamata, Gekkonidae) reveals a new species from Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, southern Thailand. ZooKeys 932: 129-159. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.932.50602
Figure 9 Habitats of Cnemaspis lineatubercularis sp. nov A Wang Mai Pak Waterfall at type locality B microhabitat of holotype in granitic rocky stream (white arrow) C microhabitat of paratypes in granitic rocky outcrops (white arrows) at Wang Mai Pak Waterfall, Lan Saka District, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, Thailand.
Figure 4 from: Qi S, Wang J, Grismer LL, Chen H-H, Lyu Z-T, Wang Y-Y (2020) The Stoor Hobbit of Guangdong: Goniurosaurus gollum sp. nov., a cave-dwelling Leopard Gecko (Squamata, Eublepharidae) from South China. ZooKeys 991: 137-153. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.991.54935
Figure 4 Comparisons of iris color with three closely related congeners AGoniurosaurus gollum sp. nov. (holotype, SYS r002420) BGoniurosaurus varius (holotype, SYS r002333) CGoniurosaurus yingdeensis (holotype SYSr000504) DGoniurosaurus zhelongi (holotype, SYS r000770). Photographs by Shuo Qi and Ying-Yong Wang.
Figure 3 from: Qi S, Wang J, Grismer LL, Chen H-H, Lyu Z-T, Wang Y-Y (2020) The Stoor Hobbit of Guangdong: Goniurosaurus gollum sp. nov., a cave-dwelling Leopard Gecko (Squamata, Eublepharidae) from South China. ZooKeys 991: 137-153. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.991.54935
Figure 3 Type series of Goniurosaurus gollum sp. nov. A holotype, male, SYS r002420 B paratype, male, SYS r002421 C paratype, female, SYS r002421; (1) dorsal view; (2) dorsal view of head; (3) ventral view of head; (4) close-up of the precloacal region, the Arabic number refer to the number of precloacal pores. Photographs by Shuo Qi.
Figure 2 from: Qi S, Wang J, Grismer LL, Chen H-H, Lyu Z-T, Wang Y-Y (2020) The Stoor Hobbit of Guangdong: Goniurosaurus gollum sp. nov., a cave-dwelling Leopard Gecko (Squamata, Eublepharidae) from South China. ZooKeys 991: 137-153. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.991.54935
Figure 2 A The general aspect of the adult male holotype of Goniurosaurus gollum sp. nov. (SYS r002420) in life B scalation and coloration characters of the head of the holotype. Photographs by Shuo Qi.
Figure 1 from: Qi S, Wang J, Grismer LL, Chen H-H, Lyu Z-T, Wang Y-Y (2020) The Stoor Hobbit of Guangdong: Goniurosaurus gollum sp. nov., a cave-dwelling Leopard Gecko (Squamata, Eublepharidae) from South China. ZooKeys 991: 137-153. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.991.54935
Figure 1 Bayesian inference tree of 14 species of Goniurosaurus, based on the partial DNA sequences of the mitochondrial 16S rRNA and Cytb genes. Hemitheconyx taylori is the outgroup. Numbers before slash indicate Bayesian posterior probabilities (BPP) and numbers after slash are bootstrap support for ML (1000 replicates) analyses.
Figure 5 from: Qi S, Wang J, Grismer LL, Chen H-H, Lyu Z-T, Wang Y-Y (2020) The Stoor Hobbit of Guangdong: Goniurosaurus gollum sp. nov., a cave-dwelling Leopard Gecko (Squamata, Eublepharidae) from South China. ZooKeys 991: 137-153. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.991.54935
Figure 5 The holotype of Goniurosaurus gollum sp. nov. (SYS r002420) at its habitat: a barren limestone cave of Guangdong, China. Photograph by Shuo Qi.
FIGURE 5 in Beauty in the eye of the beholder: a new species of gecko (Diplodactylidae Lucasium) from inland north Queensland, Australia
FIGURE 5. Lucasium iris sp. nov. Holotype (QM J94606), in preservative. Photo: Eric Vanderduys.
Data from: Morphological differentiation correlates with ecological but not genetic divergence in a Gehyra gecko.
Body size affects life history, the ecological niche of an organism and its interactions with other organisms. Resultantly, marked differences in body size between related organisms are often an indication of a species boundary. This is particularly evident in the Gehyra variegata species complex of geckos, which displays differential body sizes between genetically divergent species, but high levels of intra-specific morphological conservatism. We report on a Gehyra population that displays extraordinary body size differentiation in comparison with other G. variegata species. We used morphological and environmental data to show this population is phenotypically and ecologically distinct from its parapatric congener G. lazelli and that morphology and ecology are significantly correlated. Contrastingly, mtDNA analysis indicates paraphyly between the two groups and allele frequencies at six microsatellite loci show no population structure concordant with morpho/eco-type. These results suggest either ecological speciation or environmentally induced phenotypic polymorphism, in an otherwise morphologically conservative group.
Data from: Variation in setal micromechanics and performance of two gecko
Biomechanical models of the gecko adhesive system typically focus on setal mechanics from a single gecko species, Gekko gecko. In this study, we compared the predictions from three mathematical models with experimental observations considering an additional gecko species Phelsuma grandis, to quantify interspecific variation in setal micromechanics. We also considered the accuracy of our three focal models: the frictional adhesion model, work of detachment model, and the effective modulus model. Lastly, we report a novel approach to quantify the angle of toe detachment using the Weibull distribution. Our results suggested the coupling of frictional and adhesive forces in isolated setal arrays, first observed in G. gecko is also present in P. grandis although P. grandis displayed a higher toe detachment angle, suggesting they produce more adhesion relative to friction than G. gecko. We also found the angle of toe detachment accurately predicts a species' maximum performance limit when fit to a Weibull distribution. When considering the energy stored during setal attachment, we observed less work to remove P. grandis arrays when compared with G. gecko, suggesting P. grandis arrays may store less energy during attachment, a conclusion supported by our model estimates of stored elastic energy. Our predictions of the effective elastic modulus model suggested P. grandis arrays to have a lower modulus, E eff, but our experimental assays did not show differences in moduli between the species. The considered mathematical models successfully estimated most of our experimentally measured performance values, validating our three focal models as template models of gecko adhesion (see Full and Koditschek in J Exp Biol 202(23):3325–3332, 1999), and suggesting common setal mechanics for our focal species and possibly for all fibular adhesives. Future anchored models, built upon the above templates, may more accurately predict performance by incorporating additional parameters, such as variation in setal length and diameter. Variation in adhesive performance may affect gecko locomotion and as a result, future ecological observations will help to determine how species with different performance capabilities use their habitat.
Data from: Restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RAD-seq) reveals an extraordinary number of transitions among gecko sex-determining systems
Sex chromosomes have evolved many times in animals and studying these replicate evolutionary "experiments" can help broaden our understanding of the general forces driving the origin and evolution of sex chromosomes. However this plan of study has been hindered by the inability to identify the sex chromosome systems in the large number of species with cryptic, homomorphic sex chromosomes. Restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RAD-seq) is a critical enabling technology that can identify the sex chromosome systems in many species where traditional cytogenetic methods have failed. Using newly generated RAD-seq data from twelve gecko species, along with data from the literature, we reinterpret the evolution of sex-determining systems in lizards and snakes and test the hypothesis that sex chromosomes can routinely act as evolutionary traps. We uncovered between 17 and 25 transitions among gecko sex-determining systems. This is approximately ½ to ⅔ of the total number of transitions observed among all lizards and snakes. We find support for the hypothesis that sex chromosome systems can readily become trap-like and show that adding even a small number of species from understudied clades can greatly enhance hypothesis testing in a model-based phylogenetic framework. RAD-seq will undoubtedly prove useful in evaluating other species for male or female heterogamety, particularly the majority of fish, amphibian, and reptile species that lack visibly heteromorphic sex chromosomes, and will significantly accelerate the pace of biological discovery.
Data from: Australian house geckos are more aggressive than a globally successful invasive Asian house gecko
Invasive species are implicated in native species declines globally, but predicting the effect of specific invaders on a given native species remains difficult. Many successful invaders are highly aggressive, while others are not. The highly successful invasive Asian house gecko, Hemidactylus frenatus, has achieved a pan-tropical distribution. We investigated direct interactions between H. frenatus and a sympatric native Australian house gecko (Gehyra dubia) to determine the strength and nature of aggressive exclusion, and which species may be competitively superior. Intraspecific aggression was strong in the native, and individuals were more aggressive as residents than as intruders, suggesting this species shows site defence. In contrast, the invasive species displayed little aggression in intraspecific encounters. Overall, residents of the native species were more aggressive than residents of the invasive species. Aggression in the native species was influenced by the degree of aggression of the intruding gecko, but not by the species of intruder. Aggression from invasive residents was low and was not influenced by either the intruder's species or their behavior. Our study suggests that native Australian house geckos (Gehyra dubia) are unlikely to be directly displaced by invasive H. frenatus, but rather that this native gecko will aggressively defend its resources when necessary. In this case, the tolerance of the invasive species for others in close proximity may contribute to its success.
Data from: Into the light: diurnality has evolved multiple times in geckos
Geckos are the only major lizard group consisting mostly of nocturnal species. Nocturnality is presumed to have evolved early in gecko evolution and geckos possess numerous adaptations to functioning in low light and at low temperatures. However, not all gecko species are nocturnal and most diurnal geckos have their own distinct adaptations to living in warmer, sunlit environments. We reconstructed the evolution of gecko activity patterns using a newly generated time-calibrated phylogeny. Our results provide the first phylogenetic analysis of temporal activity patterns in geckos and confirm an ancient origin of nocturnality at the root of the gecko tree. We identify multiple transitions to diurnality at a variety of evolutionary time scales and transitions back to nocturnality occur in several predominantly diurnal clades. The scenario presented here will be useful in reinterpreting existing hypotheses of how geckos have adapted to varying thermal and light environments. These results can also inform future research of gecko ecology, physiology, morphology and vision as it relates to changes in temporal activity patterns.
Data from: Evolutionary signatures of photoreceptor transmutation in geckos reveal potential adaptation and convergence with snakes
Most vertebrates use a combination of rod and cone photoreceptors to enable vision in conditions ranging from starlight to direct sunlight. Nocturnal geckos, however, have simplex retinas that contain only rods in terms of morphology and physiology, but these rods are thought to be derived from cones through an evolutionary process known as photoreceptor transmutation. To investigate this, we generated eye transcriptomes and analyzed patterns of phototransduction gene evolution in geckos in comparison to other reptiles. We confirm that geckos have lost several major components of the rod phototransduction pathway, including rod opsin (RH1), which we identified as a pseudogene in multiple genomes. We also identified a partial rod transducin transcript, but found no evidence of the protein in retinal sections. However, we find that geckos express several complete rod phototransduction transcripts in the eye, which may contribute to the rod-like physiology of nocturnal gecko photoreceptors. Finally, we found surprising evidence that even though photoreceptor transmutation evolved independently in geckos and snakes, they have experienced parallel shifts in selective constraint on phototransduction genes. These results implicate convergent adaptive change in the underlying molecular machinery of visual transduction, in addition to the more obvious changes to cellular morphology, during photoreceptor transmutation.
Data from: Geckos significantly alter foot orientation to facilitate adhesion during downhill locomotion
Geckos employ their adhesive system when moving up an incline, but the directionality of the system may limit function on downhill surfaces. Here, we use a generalist gecko to test whether limb modulation occurs on downhill slopes to allow geckos to take advantage of their adhesive system. We examined three-dimensional limb kinematics for geckos moving up and down a 45° slope. Remarkably, the hind limbs were rotated posteriorly on declines, resulting in digit III of the pes facing a more posterior direction (opposite to the direction of travel). No significant changes in limb orientation were found in any other condition. This pes rotation leads to a dramatic shift in foot function that facilitates the use of the adhesive system as a brake/stabilizer during downhill locomotion and, although this rotation is not unique to geckos, it is significant for the deployment of adhesion. Adhesion is not just advantageous for uphill locomotion but can be employed to help deal with the effects of gravity during downhill locomotion, highlighting the incredible multi-functionality of this key innovation.
Data from: Passively stuck: death does not affect gecko adhesion strength
Many geckos use adhesive toe pads on the bottom of their digits to attach to surfaces with remarkable strength. Although gecko adhesion has been studied for hundreds of years, gaps exist in our understanding at the whole-animal level. It remains unclear whether the strength and maintenance of adhesion are determined by the animal or are passively intrinsic to the system. Here we show, for the first time, that strong adhesion is produced passively at the whole-animal level. Experiments on both live and recently euthanized tokay geckos (Gekko gecko) revealed that death does not affect the dynamic adhesive force or motion of a gecko foot when pulled along a vertical surface. Using a novel device that applied repeatable and steady-increasing pulling forces to the foot in shear, we found that the adhesive force was similarly high and variable when the animal was alive (mean ± s.d. = 5.4 ± 1.7 N) and within 30 min after death (5.4 ± 2.1 N). However, kinematic analyses showed that live geckos are able to control the degree of toe pad engagement and can rapidly stop strong adhesion by hyperextending the toes. This study offers the first assessment of whole-animal adhesive force under extremely controlled conditions. Our findings reveal that dead geckos maintain the ability to adhere with the same force as living animals, disproving that strong adhesion requires active control.
FIGURE 3 in Gecko on the rocks: an enigmatic new species of Gonatodes (Sphaerodactylidae) from Inselbergs of the Venezuelan Guayana
FIGURE 3. Map showing the type locality of Gonatodes infernalis sp. nov. (circle).
FIGURE 2 in Gecko on the rocks: an enigmatic new species of Gonatodes (Sphaerodactylidae) from Inselbergs of the Venezuelan Guayana
FIGURE 2. Subcaudal pattern of Gonatodes infernalis sp. nov., holotype MHNLS 18440.
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