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The emergence of ecotypes in a parasitoid wasp: a case of incipient sympatric speciation in Hymenoptera?
<p>Background</p> <p>To understand which reproductive barriers initiate speciation is a major question in evolutionary research. Despite their high species numbers and specific biology, there are only few studies on speciation in Hymenoptera. This study aims to identify very early reproductive barriers in a local, sympatric population of Nasonia vitripennis (Walker 1836), a hymenopterous parasitoid of fly pupae. We studied ecological barriers, sexual barriers, and the reduction in F1-female offspring as a postmating barrier, as well as the population structure using microsatellites.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>We found considerable inbreeding within female strains and a population structure with either three or five subpopulation clusters defined by microsatellites. In addition, there are two ecotypes, one parasitizing fly pupae in bird nests and the other on carrion. The nest ecotype is mainly formed from one of the microsatellite clusters, the two or four remaining microsatellite clusters form the carrion ecotype. There was slight sexual isolation and a reduction in F1-female offspring between inbreeding strains from the same microsatellite clusters and the same ecotypes. Strains from different microsatellite clusters are separated by a reduction in F1-female offspring. Ecotypes are separated only by ecological barriers.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>This is the first demonstration of very early reproductive barriers within a sympatric population of Hymenoptera. It demonstrates that sexual and premating barriers can precede ecological separation. This indicates the complexity of ecotype formation and highlights the general need for more studies within homogenous populations for the identification of the earliest barriers in the speciation process.</p>
Fig. 1 in Parasitoid wasps of the family Stephanidae (Hymenoptera: Stephanoidea) in the fauna of Russia
Fig. 1. Foenatopus ruficollis (Enderlein, 1913) (male from Vladivostok, Russia). A –
Fig. 2 in Parasitoid wasps of the family Stephanidae (Hymenoptera: Stephanoidea) in the fauna of Russia
Fig. 2. Stephanus serrator (Fabricius, 1798) (female from Ukraine). A – habitus, dorsal
Figure 27 in Notes on the jumping spider Myrmarachne exasperans (Araneae: Salticidae: Astioida: Myrmarachnini) in Bali, a possible mimic of parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Cryptini: Goryphus)
Figure 27. Adult female Myrmarachne cf. exasperans, specimen SWK12-3132, collection WPM#12-095, from Sarawak, Malaysia, Headquarters Area, tree foliage, Mulu National Park (4.042°N, 114.814°E). 6, Note series of six long spines on the tibia and two long spines on the metatarsus of this preserved female, as seen in M. exasperans. 7, Ventral view of epigynum. Scale patterns and locality suggest that this is Emertonius koomeni Prószyński 2018. Photographs © W. Maddison 2015, used under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) 3.0 license.
Figure 26 in Notes on the jumping spider Myrmarachne exasperans (Araneae: Salticidae: Astioida: Myrmarachnini) in Bali, a possible mimic of parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Cryptini: Goryphus)
Figure 26. Distribution of Myrmarachne exasperans in Indonesia. 1, Adult male photographed 23 June 2017 in Puncak, West Java, by Janus Olajuan Boediman. Photograph used with permission. 2, Reported distribution of M. exasperans in Java and Bali (white circles). This background relief map is in the public domain (CC0), courtesy of maps-for-free (https://maps-forfree.com).
Figure 24. Consecutive frames from a in Notes on the jumping spider Myrmarachne exasperans (Araneae: Salticidae: Astioida: Myrmarachnini) in Bali, a possible mimic of parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Cryptini: Goryphus)
Figure 24. Consecutive frames from a video (29.80 fps) of a male M. exasperans displaying to a nearby male of the same species. In 0.30s 2.5 cycles of back and forth movement of legs I (~8° amplitude, ~8.3 cycles/s) was observed.
Figure 25. Consecutive frames from a in Notes on the jumping spider Myrmarachne exasperans (Araneae: Salticidae: Astioida: Myrmarachnini) in Bali, a possible mimic of parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Cryptini: Goryphus)
Figure 25. Consecutive frames from a video (29.81 fps) of a male M. exasperans displaying to a nearby male of the same species. In 0.30s 3.0 cycles of back and forth movement of legs I (~8° amplitude, ~10.0 cycles/s) was observed.
Figure 21. Sequential frames from a in Notes on the jumping spider Myrmarachne exasperans (Araneae: Salticidae: Astioida: Myrmarachnini) in Bali, a possible mimic of parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Cryptini: Goryphus)
Figure 21. Sequential frames from a video (29.57 fps) of a moving ichneumonid wasp (female Goryphus cf. basilaris). Up and down movement of the wings relative to each preceding frame is indicated with arrows. A chart of this movement, peaking at ~15 cycles/s and averaging 10.1 cycles/s with interruptions, is shown in Figure 18:6.
Figure 22. Sequential but not consecutive frames from a in Notes on the jumping spider Myrmarachne exasperans (Araneae: Salticidae: Astioida: Myrmarachnini) in Bali, a possible mimic of parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Cryptini: Goryphus)
Figure 22. Sequential but not consecutive frames from a video (29.71 fps) of a moving ichneumonid wasp (female Goryphus cf. basilaris). Up and down movement of the wings relative to each preceding frame is indicated with arrows. This movement peaked at ~15 cycles/s (frames [4] to [8] and frames [21] to [25]).
Figure 16 in Notes on the jumping spider Myrmarachne exasperans (Araneae: Salticidae: Astioida: Myrmarachnini) in Bali, a possible mimic of parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Cryptini: Goryphus)
Figure 16. Small ant nest covered with collected debris (Bali). 2-3, Two close-up views of the nest shown in (1).
Figure 19. Sequential frames from a in Notes on the jumping spider Myrmarachne exasperans (Araneae: Salticidae: Astioida: Myrmarachnini) in Bali, a possible mimic of parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Cryptini: Goryphus)
Figure 19. Sequential frames from a video (29.63 fps) of a moving adult male Myrmarachne exasperans. Up and down (bobbing) movement of the opisthosoma relative to each preceding frame is indicated with arrows. Between frames [8] and [12] the opisthosoma was bobbed at ~15 cycles/s. With interruptions the average was ~11 cycles/s for this entire sequence.
Figure 20. Sequential frames from a in Notes on the jumping spider Myrmarachne exasperans (Araneae: Salticidae: Astioida: Myrmarachnini) in Bali, a possible mimic of parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Cryptini: Goryphus)
Figure 20. Sequential frames from a video (29.79 fps) of a moving adult female Myrmarachne exasperans. Up and down (bobbing) movement of the opisthosoma relative to each preceding frame is indicated with arrows. Maximum recorded rates of movement were ~15 cycles/s (e.g., between frames [1] and [4]), with 10 cycles completed in this 0.97s sequence for an average, including interruptions, of 10.3 cycles/s.
Figure 11 in Notes on the jumping spider Myrmarachne exasperans (Araneae: Salticidae: Astioida: Myrmarachnini) in Bali, a possible mimic of parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Cryptini: Goryphus)
Figure 11. Plants occupied by Myrmarachne and the wasps that they may mimic in a Cepaka garden. Nests were found on the underside of broad leaves. 1, Ficus. 3, Bird's Nest Fern (Asplenium nitens). 4, Many wasps (Goryphus) were found hunting on these poolside bromeliads.
Figure 14. Sequential frames from a 29.57fps video showing a female M in Notes on the jumping spider Myrmarachne exasperans (Araneae: Salticidae: Astioida: Myrmarachnini) in Bali, a possible mimic of parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Cryptini: Goryphus)
Figure 14. Sequential frames from a 29.57fps video showing a female M. exasperans entering her nest at one end (frame 131) and emerging from the other end (frame 401). Arrows (191, 321, 421) indicate position of female in nest.
Figure 2 in Notes on the jumping spider Myrmarachne exasperans (Araneae: Salticidae: Astioida: Myrmarachnini) in Bali, a possible mimic of parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Cryptini: Goryphus)
Figure 2. Living adult male Myrmarachne exasperans. Length is ~5-6 mm, not including the chelicerae.
Figure 6 in Notes on the jumping spider Myrmarachne exasperans (Araneae: Salticidae: Astioida: Myrmarachnini) in Bali, a possible mimic of parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Cryptini: Goryphus)
Figure 6. Living adult female Myrmarachne exasperans. Length is ~5-6 mm, not including the chelicerae.
Figure 28 in Notes on the jumping spider Myrmarachne exasperans (Araneae: Salticidae: Astioida: Myrmarachnini) in Bali, a possible mimic of parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Cryptini: Goryphus)
Figure 28. Adult female Myrmarachne cf. exasperans, specimen SWK12-3132, collection WPM#12-095, from Sarawak, Malaysia, Headquarters Area, tree foliage, Mulu National Park (4.042°N, 114.814°E). 6, Note series of six long spines on the tibia and two long spines on the metatarsus of this preserved female, as seen in M. exasperans. 7, Ventral view of epigynum. Scale patterns and locality suggest that this is Emertonius koomeni Prószyński 2018. Photographs © W. Maddison 2015, used under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) 3.0 license.
Figure 10 in Notes on the jumping spider Myrmarachne exasperans (Araneae: Salticidae: Astioida: Myrmarachnini) in Bali, a possible mimic of parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Cryptini: Goryphus)
Figure 10. Early immature Myrmarachne exasperans. These small spiders (several mm in length) lack the distinctive features of the adults and are decidedly not ant-like. Later immatures (Figure 12) resemble adult females but are not as brightly colored.
Figure 23. Sequential but not consecutive frames from a in Notes on the jumping spider Myrmarachne exasperans (Araneae: Salticidae: Astioida: Myrmarachnini) in Bali, a possible mimic of parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Cryptini: Goryphus)
Figure 23. Sequential but not consecutive frames from a video (29.71 fps) of a moving ichneumonid wasp (female Goryphus cf. basilaris). Up and down movement of the wings relative to each preceding frame is indicated with arrows. This movement peaked at ~15 cycles/s (frames [4] to [8] and frames [21] to [25]).
Figure 24 in Notes on the jumping spider Myrmarachne exasperans (Araneae: Salticidae: Astioida: Myrmarachnini) in Bali, a possible mimic of parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Cryptini: Goryphus)
Figure 24. Faces of some vespid wasps. 1, Polistes exclamans colony. Two workers turned to face the photographer. 2, Distinctive yellow face of a male P. fuscatus. 3, Different facial patterns of mating male and female potter wasp (Parancistrocerus sp.). All were from Greenville County, South Carolina.
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Allen Brain Atlas
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