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FIG. 11 in Ontogenetic systematic characterisation of an endemic frog Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870 (Anura: Rhacophoridae) from Western Ghats, Kerala, India

FIG. 11. — SEM image of keratodonts of second anterior tooth row (A2) of Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870 (Gosner stage 32). Abbreviations: KD, keratodonts; MD, marginal denticles. Scale bar: 10 µm.

FIG. 9 in Ontogenetic systematic characterisation of an endemic frog Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870 (Anura: Rhacophoridae) from Western Ghats, Kerala, India

FIG. 9. — Oral disc morphology of Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870 (Gosner stage 32). Abbreviations: A3G, third anterior tooth gap; A1 to A7 anterior tooth rows 1 to 7; P1 to P3 posterior tooth rows 1 to 3. Scale bar: 100 µm.

FIG. 4 in Ontogenetic systematic characterisation of an endemic frog Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870 (Anura: Rhacophoridae) from Western Ghats, Kerala, India

FIG. 4. — Developmental stages of Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870: A, Gosner stage 34; B, Gosner stage 35; C, Gosner stage 36; D, Gosner stage 37; E, Gosner stage 38; F, Gosner stage 39; G, Gosner stage 40; H, Gosner stage 41. Scale bars: A-E, 3 mm; F-H, 4 mm.

FIG. 6 in Ontogenetic systematic characterisation of an endemic frog Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870 (Anura: Rhacophoridae) from Western Ghats, Kerala, India

FIG. 6. — Habitus of the tadpole of Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870 stage 36: A, lateral view; B, dorsal view. Scale bar: 10 mm.

FIG. 3 in Ontogenetic systematic characterisation of an endemic frog Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870 (Anura: Rhacophoridae) from Western Ghats, Kerala, India

FIG. 3. — Developmental stages of Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870: A, Gosner stage 1; B, Gosner stage 13; C, Gosner stage 15; D, Gosner stage 22; E, Gosner stage 26; F, Gosner stage 27; G, Gosner stage 29; H, Gosner stage 31. Scale bars: 1 mm.

FIG. 8 in Ontogenetic systematic characterisation of an endemic frog Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870 (Anura: Rhacophoridae) from Western Ghats, Kerala, India

FIG. 8. — Correlation between morphometric parameters (total length and tail length) and stages A, and B, correlation between morphometric parameters (tail length and snout-vent length) and stages C, and D.

FIG. 5 in Ontogenetic systematic characterisation of an endemic frog Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870 (Anura: Rhacophoridae) from Western Ghats, Kerala, India

FIG. 5. — Developmental stages of Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870: A, Gosner stage 42; B, Gosner stage 43; C, Gosner stage 44; D, Gosner stage 46.

FIG. 1 in Ontogenetic systematic characterisation of an endemic frog Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870 (Anura: Rhacophoridae) from Western Ghats, Kerala, India

FIG. 1. — Map of study area (Karlakkod, Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India). Source: Survey of India Topographical Map.

FIG. 10 in Ontogenetic systematic characterisation of an endemic frog Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870 (Anura: Rhacophoridae) from Western Ghats, Kerala, India

FIG. 10. — SEM image of oral disc morphology of Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870 (Gosner stage 32). Abbreviations: A3G, third anterior tooth gap; A1 to A7, anterior tooth rows 1 to 7; LJSS, lower jaw sheath serration; LMP, lower marginal papillae; P1 to P3, posterior tooth rows 1 to 3; UJSS, upper jaw sheath serration; UMP, upper marginal papillae. Scale bar: 100 µm.

opencc-by-4.0Jul 2019View details →

Fig. 3 in Size-At-Age Variability And Sexual Dimorphism Of Morphometric Characteristics In The Late Ontogenesis Of The Marsh Frog, Pelophylax Ridibundus (Anura, Ranidae), From Terrytory Of Crimea

Fig. 3. The differentiation of males (А) and females (B) of the marsh frog according to the absolute values of the body measurements.

opencc-by-4.0Jul 2019View details →

Fig. 2 in Size-At-Age Variability And Sexual Dimorphism Of Morphometric Characteristics In The Late Ontogenesis Of The Marsh Frog, Pelophylax Ridibundus (Anura, Ranidae), From Terrytory Of Crimea

Fig. 2. Micrographs of cross- sections through the middle part of the diaphysis of the fifth phalange of the fourth toe of frogs: a, b, c, d, e — the arrow indicates the lines that correspond wintering 1–5.

opencc-by-4.0Nov 2016View details →

Fig. 1 in Pecular Features Of Hematopoiesis In The Liver Of Mature And Immature Green Frogs (Pelophylax Esculentus Complex)

Fig. 1. Smear-imprint of the liver of immature green frog: a — pigment cells; b — erythroblasts; c — undifferentiated blast, erythroblast and eosinophilicmyelocyte; d — erythroblast and medullocell neutrophil. Pappenheim staining, ×200.

opencc-by-4.0Jul 2016View details →

Fig. 1 in Food Habits Of The Endemic Long Legged Wood Frog, Rana Pseudodalmatina (Amphibia, Ranidae) In Northern Iran

Fig. 1. Map showing the localities of Rana pseudodlmatina (Eiselt & Schmidtler, 1971) samples from Iran. For identification localities numbers, refer to table 1.

opencc-zeroApr 2022View details →

Supplementary data from 'Predicting the distribution of Australian frogs and their overlap with Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis under climate change'

Aim: Amphibians, with over 40% of assessed species listed as threatened, are disproportionately at risk in the global extinction crisis. Among the many factors implicated in the current and ongoing loss of amphibian biodiversity are climate change and the disease chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). These two threats are of particular concern in Australia, where Bd has been implicated in the declines of at least 43 frog species, and climate change is emerging as an additional threat. Here, we explore how climate change is likely to affect the distributions of Australian frog species and Bd to the year 2100, as well as how the spatial and climatic niche overlap between <a>chytridiomycosis-declined </a>frogs and Bd could shift. Location: Australia Methods: We used species distribution modelling to infer the current and future distribution of 141 Australian frog species and Bd, under two emissions scenarios. We used metrics of niche similarity, including Schoener's D and the Niche Margin Index, to quantify predicted alterations to spatial interactions between Bd and frog species. Results: Climate change is likely to have a variable impact on frog distributions in Australia, with some 23 and 47 species, primarily in southern Australia, predicted to lose at least 30% of their current distributions under low and high emissions scenarios, respectively. In contrast, 69 and 68 species, respectively, have potential to increase their distributions, primarily in northern Australia. While the distribution of Bd is predicted to decrease, the proportional spatial and niche overlap between Bd and susceptible frog species is predicted to remain little changed, and in some cases, to increase. Main conclusions: Although effects will be variable across the continent, climate change is likely to be a threatening factor to a number of Australian frog species. Additionally, chytridiomycosis is likely to remain a significant threat to many frog species, as any reductions to the pathogen's distribution largely coincide with geographic range contractions of chytridiomycosis-susceptible species.

opencc-zeroJul 2022View details →

Anthropogenic noise and light alter temporal but not spatial breeding behavior in a wild frog

Increasing urbanization has led to large scale land-use changes, exposing persistent populations to drastically altered environments. Sensory pollutants, including low-frequency anthropogenic noise and artificial light at night (ALAN), are typically associated with urban environments and known to impact animal populations in a variety of ways. Both ALAN and anthropogenic noise can alter behavioral and physiological processes important for survival and reproduction, including communication and circadian rhythms. Although noise and light pollution typically co-occur in urbanized areas, few studies have addressed their combined impact on species' behavior. Here we assessed how anthropogenic noise and ALAN can influence spatial and temporal variation in breeding activity of a wild frog population. By exposing artificial breeding sites inside a tropical rainforest to multiple sensory environments, we found that both anthropogenic noise and ALAN impact breeding behavior of túngara frogs (Engystomops pustulosus), albeit in different ways. Males arrived later in the night at their breeding sites in response to anthropogenic noise. ALAN, on the other hand, led to an increase in calling effort. We found no evidence that noise or light pollution either attracted frogs to or repelled frogs from breeding sites. Thus, anthropogenic noise may negatively affect calling males by shifting the timing of sexual signaling. Conversely, ALAN may increase the attractiveness of calling males. These changes in breeding behavior highlight the complex ways that urban multisensory pollution can influence behavior and suggest that such changes may have important ecological implications for the wildlife that are becoming increasingly exposed to urban multisensory pollution.

opencc-zeroJul 2022View details →

Climate change alters sexual signaling in a desert-adapted frog

Climate change is altering species' habitats, phenology, and behavior. Although sexual behaviors impact population persistence and fitness, climate change's effects on sexual signals are understudied. Climate change can directly alter temperature-dependent sexual signals, cause changes in body size or condition that affect signal production, or alter the selective landscape of sexual signals. We tested whether temperature-dependent mating calls of Mexican spadefoot toads (Spea multiplicata) had changed in concert with climate in the Southwestern U.S.A. across 22 years. We document increasing air temperatures, decreasing rainfall, and changing seasonal patterns of temperature and rainfall in the spadefoots' habitat. Despite increasing air temperatures, spadefoots' ephemeral breeding ponds have been getting colder at most elevations, and male calls have been slowing as a result. However, temperature-standardized call characters have become faster and male condition has increased, possibly due to changes in the selective environment. Thus, climate change might generate rapid, complex changes in sexual signals with important evolutionary consequences.

opencc-zeroAug 2022View details →

Recovered frog populations coexist with endemic Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis despite load-dependent mortality

Novel infectious diseases, particularly those caused by fungal pathogens, pose considerable risks to global biodiversity. The amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, Bd) has demonstrated the scale of the threat, having caused the greatest recorded loss of vertebrate biodiversity attributable to a pathogen. Despite catastrophic declines on several continents, many affected species have experienced population recoveries after epidemics. However, the potential ongoing threat of endemic Bd in these recovered or recovering populations is still poorly understood. We investigated the threat of endemic Bd to frog populations that recovered after initial precipitous declines, focusing on the endangered rainforest frog Mixophyes fleayi. We conducted extensive field surveys over four years at three independent sites in eastern Australia. First, we compared Bd infection prevalence and infection intensities within frog communities to reveal species-specific infection patterns. Then, we analyzed capture-recapture data of M. fleayi to estimate the impact of Bd infection intensity on apparent mortality rates and Bd infection dynamics. We found that M. fleayi had lower infection intensities than sympatric frogs across the three sites, and cleared infections at higher rates than they gained infections throughout the study period. By incorporating time-varying individual infection intensities, we show that healthy M. fleayi populations persist despite increased apparent mortality associated with infrequent high Bd loads. Infection dynamics were influenced by environmental conditions, with Bd prevalence, infection intensity, and rates of gaining infection associated with lower temperatures and increased rainfall. However, mortality remained constant year-round despite these fluctuations in Bd infections, suggesting major mortality events did not occur over the study period. Together, our results demonstrate that while Bd is still a potential threat to recovered populations of M. fleayi, high rates of clearing infections and generally low average infection loads likely minimize mortality caused by Bd. Our results are consistent with pathogen resistance contributing to the coexistence of M. fleayi with endemic Bd. We emphasize the importance of incorporating infection intensity into disease models rather than infection status alone. Similar population and infection dynamics likely exist within other recovered amphibian-Bd systems around the globe, promising longer-term persistence in the face of endemic chytridiomycosis.

opencc-zeroAug 2022View details →

Over the hills and through the farms: Land use and topography influence genetic connectivity of northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens) in the Prairie Pothole Region

Context Agricultural land-use conversion has fragmented prairie wetland habitats in the Prairie Pothole Region (PPR), an area with one of the most wetland-dense regions in the world. This fragmentation can lead to negative consequences for wetland obligate organisms, heightening risk of local extinction and reducing evolutionary potential for populations to adapt to changing environments. Objectives This study models biotic connectivity of prairie-pothole wetlands using landscape genetic analyses of the northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens) to: (1) identify population structure and (2) determine landscape factors driving genetic differentiation and possibly leading to population fragmentation. Methods Frogs from 22 sites in the James River and Lake Oahe river basins in North Dakota were genotyped using Best-RAD sequencing at 2868 bi-allelic single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Population structure was assessed using STRUCTURE, DAPC, and fineSTRUCTURE. Circuitscape was used to model resistance values for ten landscape variables that could affect habitat connectivity. Results STRUCTURE results suggested a panmictic population, but other more sensitive clustering methods identified six spatially organized clusters. Circuit theory-based landscape resistance analysis suggested land use, including cultivated crop agriculture, and topography were the primary influences on genetic differentiation. Conclusions While the R. pipiens populations appear to have high gene flow, we found a difference in the patterns of connectivity between the eastern portion of our study area which was dominated by cultivated crop agriculture, versus the western portion where topographic roughness played a greater role. This information can help identify amphibian dispersal corridors and prioritize lands for conservation or restoration.

opencc-zeroAug 2022View details →

Data for: Investigating signal modalities of aposematism in a poison frog

Aposematic species combine a conspicuous signal with a secondary defense, the majority of which are studied in the context of a visual signal. While multimodality of the aposematic signal appears to be common in invertebrate species, we know very little about the presence or absence of multimodality in vertebrates. Here we examine the possibility of multimodality of aposematism in the green and black poison frog, Dendrobates auratus. Using a non-visual predator (the cat-eyed snake, Leptodeira annulata) and extractions of chemicals in frog skins, we test whether there is sufficient non-visual information for predators to avoid this aposematic species without using visual cues. We found that experienced predators avoid chemicals in this poison frog's skin by olfactory cues alone in trials with live frogs and extracts from captive poison frogs, whereas extracts from wild poison frogs did not lead to avoidance behaviors in predators. Further, in our limited sampling, naïve predators demonstrate no avoidance. This not only indicates that predators can make informed decisions from the frog's odor but also indicates that avoidance based on olfactory cue is a learned response.