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FIG. 10 in Model-based analysis of postcranial osteology of marsupials from the Palaeocene of Itaboraí (Brazil) and the phylogenetics and biogeography of Metatheria

FIG. 10. — Details of left humeri; A-D, Dromiciops; E-H, Rhyncholestes; A, E, proximal view of head and distal outline (axes show an approximate degree of torsion between proximal and distal ends); B, F, distal view of distal end; C, G, anterior view of distal third; D, H, posterior view of distal third. For numbered designations of specific characters see text. Abbreviation: Ras, radial sesamoid. Scale bar: 1 mm.

FIG. 9 in Model-based analysis of postcranial osteology of marsupials from the Palaeocene of Itaboraí (Brazil) and the phylogenetics and biogeography of Metatheria

FIG. 9. — Details of left humeri; A-D, Caluromys; E-H, Metachirus; A, E, proximal view of head and distal outline (axes show an approximate degree of torsion between proximal and distal ends); B, F, distal view of distal end; C, G, anterior view of distal third; D, H, posterior view of distal third. For numbered designations of specific characters see text. Scale bar: 4 mm.

FIG. 8 in Model-based analysis of postcranial osteology of marsupials from the Palaeocene of Itaboraí (Brazil) and the phylogenetics and biogeography of Metatheria

FIG. 8. — Details of proximal left humeri; A-D, Caluromys; A, posterior view; B, lateral view; C, medial view; D, anterior view; E-H, Metachirus; E, posterior view; F, lateral view; G, medial view; H, anterior view. For numbered designations of specific characters see text. Scale bar: 2 mm.

FIG. 5 in Model-based analysis of postcranial osteology of marsupials from the Palaeocene of Itaboraí (Brazil) and the phylogenetics and biogeography of Metatheria

FIG. 5. — Juvenile to adult ontogenetic series, from left to right, of left proximal femora of Didelphis virginiana; A, anterior view; B, posterior view. Abbreviations: eppl, epiphyseal plate; ffoc, femoral fovea capitis (for ligamentum teres); fgtr, femoral greater trochanter; fhd, femoral head; fhdn, neck of femoral head; fltr, femoral lesser trochanter; fptcr, femoral paratrochanteric crest; ftf, femoral trochanteric fossa; fthtr, femoral third trochanter. Scale bar: 4 mm.

FIG. 3 in Model-based analysis of postcranial osteology of marsupials from the Palaeocene of Itaboraí (Brazil) and the phylogenetics and biogeography of Metatheria

FIG. 3. — Juvenile to adult ontogenetic series, from left to right, of five left femora and humeri of Didelphis virginiana; A, proximal view of femora; B, distal view of femora; C, distal view of humeri. Abbreviations: fgqf, femoral groove for quadriceps femoris; fgtr, femoral greater trochanter; fhd, femoral head; ficfo, femoral intercondylar fossa; flc, femoral lateral condyle; fltr, femoral lesser trochanter; fmc, femoral medial condyle; fptcr, femoral paratrochanteric crest; hcap, humeral capitulum; hlec, humeral (lateral) ectepicondyle; hlfcap, humeral lateral flange of capitulum; hpmcr, humeral posteromedial crest; hmec, humeral (medial) entepicondyle; hplcr, humeral posterolateral crest; htr, humeral trochlea; HuRa, humeroradial facet; HuUl, humeroulnar facet; HuUlz, zonal humeroradial; rasgr, groove for radial sesamoid. Scale bar: 4 mm.

FIG. 7. — A-D in Model-based analysis of postcranial osteology of marsupials from the Palaeocene of Itaboraí (Brazil) and the phylogenetics and biogeography of Metatheria

FIG. 7. — A-D, Caluromys derbianus, left scapula; A, medial view; B, lateral view; C, anterior veiw; D, ventral view; E, Metachirus nudicaudatus, left scapula, ventral view; F, left scapula of the Itaboraí specimen (reversed), ventral view. Abbreviations: Cl, clavicle; sacpr, scapular acromion process; ScHu, scapulohumeral facet; scopr, scapular coracoid process; sglfo, scapular glenoid fossa (within which ScHu is located); spsp, scapular spine. Scale bar: D, 4 mm.

FIG. 4 in Model-based analysis of postcranial osteology of marsupials from the Palaeocene of Itaboraí (Brazil) and the phylogenetics and biogeography of Metatheria

FIG. 4. — Juvenile to adult ontogenetic series, from left to right, of five left proximal ulnae of Didelphis virginiana; A, anterior view; B, medial view; C, lateral view. Abbreviations: HuUlm, medial humeroulnar; HuUlr, radial humeroulnar; HuUlz, zonal humeroradial; RaUlp, proximal radioulnar facet; rn, radial notch; ulalfo, ulnar annular ligamentous fossa; ulco, ulnar coronoid process; ulcolr, ulnar cranial olecranon ridge; uldtc, distal ulnar trochlear crest; ulfoa, ulnar fossa for anconeus; ulfofdp, ulnar fossa for flexor digitorum profundus; ulgr, ulnar guiding ridge; ulol, ulnar olecranon process; ulppr, ulnar proximal process; ulptc, ulnar proximal trochlear crest; ulptcl, ulnar lateral proximal trochlear crest; ulptcm, ulnar medial proximal trochlear crest; ulscs, ulnar subcutaneous surface; ultrn, ulnar trochlear notch. Scale bar: 4 mm.

FIG. 2 in Model-based analysis of postcranial osteology of marsupials from the Palaeocene of Itaboraí (Brazil) and the phylogenetics and biogeography of Metatheria

FIG. 2. — Juvenile to adult ontogenetic series, from left to right, of five left humeri of Didelphis virginiana; A, proximal ends; B, lateral view of proximal end of largest specimen; C, medial view of proximal end of largest specimen; D, anterior view of distal ends; E, posterior view of distal ends. Abbreviations: hbgr, humeral bicipital groove; hcap, humeral capitulum; hcfo, humeral coronoid fossa; hhd, humeral head; hlec, humeral (lateral) ectepicondyle; hlecr, humeral (lateral) ectepicondylar crest; hlfcap, humeral lateral flange of capitulum; hltub, humeral lateral (greater) tuberosity; hmtub, humeral medial (lesser) tuberosity; hmec, humeral (medial) entepicondyle; hofo, humeral olecranon fossa; hplcr, humeral posterolateral crest; hpmcr, humeral posteromedial crest; hrfo, humeral radial fossa; hscf, humeral supracondyloid foramen; hscr, humeral supracondyloid ridge; htr,; HuUlz, zonal humeroulnar facet; hzcon, humeral zona conoidea; rasgr, groove for radial sesamoid. Scale bar: 4 mm.

FIG. 6 in Model-based analysis of postcranial osteology of marsupials from the Palaeocene of Itaboraí (Brazil) and the phylogenetics and biogeography of Metatheria

FIG. 6. — Details of juvenile and adult left tibiae and fibula of Didelphis virginiana; A, proximal view of juvenile tibia; B, proximal view of adult tibia; C, proximal view of adult tibia and fibula; D, distal view of adult tibia showing astragalar articulation; E, posterior view of specimen shown in D; F, anterior view of specimen shown in E. Abbreviations: ATil, lateral astragalotibial facet; ATim, medial astragalotibial facet; ATip, posterior astragalotibial facet; FeFi, femorofibular facet; FeTil, lateral femorotibial facet; FeTim, medial femorotibial facet; Fi, fibula; PfFi, parafibulofibular facet; Ti, tibia; TiFid, distal tibiofibular facet; tilc, tibial lateral condyle; tilic, tibial lateral intercondylar tubercle; timic, tibial medial condyle; tmm, tibial medial malleolus; tqfcr, tibial crest for quadratus femoris; trmgr, tibial retromalleolar groove. Scale bars: 4 mm.

FIG. 19 in Eomakhaira molossus, A New Saber-Toothed Sparassodont (Metatheria: Thylacosmilinae) from the Early Oligocene (?Tinguirirican) Cachapoal Locality, Andean Main Range, Chile

FIG. 19. Size comparison of representative Paleogene proborhyaenids. From largest to smallest, Proborhyaena gigantea (in blue), the largest known proborhyaenid (scaled after AMNH 29576, the largest specimen of this taxon); Callistoe vincei (in green), the smallest named proborhyaenid prior to this study (scaled after the holotype specimen, PVL 4187); Eomakhaira molossus (in red), scaled after SGOPV 3490. Homo sapiens (170 cm tall) to right for comparison. Body mass for Proborhyaena from Prevosti et al. (2013) and Croft et al. (2018), Callistoe from Argot and Babot (2011), and Eomakhaira from the present study. Silhouettes for Proborhyaena (CC-BY-SA 3.0), duplicated for Callistoe and Eomakhaira, and Homo (CC0 1.0) by Zimices, and NASA, respectively, from PhyloPic. Scale bar = 1 m.

FIG. 14 in Eomakhaira molossus, A New Saber-Toothed Sparassodont (Metatheria: Thylacosmilinae) from the Early Oligocene (?Tinguirirican) Cachapoal Locality, Andean Main Range, Chile

FIG. 14. Cross-sectional CT image of left M4 of SGOPV 3490 in A, oblique occlusal and B, posterior views. Shows presence of three roots. Scale bars = 5 mm.

FIG 11 in Eomakhaira molossus, A New Saber-Toothed Sparassodont (Metatheria: Thylacosmilinae) from the Early Oligocene (?Tinguirirican) Cachapoal Locality, Andean Main Range, Chile

FIG 11. Morphology of the left lower canine root in the holotype of Eomakhaira molossus (SGOPV 3490). A, CT reconstruction in oblique lateral view, showing prominent depression on proximal end of canine and its connection to the pulp cavity. Connection to pulp cavity has been artificially darkened for contrast. B, Oblique lateral CT image slice of SGOPV 3490, showing flared, smooth distal end of left lower canine (denoted by arrow). Scale = 10 mm.

FIG. 13. Left M3–4 in Eomakhaira molossus, A New Saber-Toothed Sparassodont (Metatheria: Thylacosmilinae) from the Early Oligocene (?Tinguirirican) Cachapoal Locality, Andean Main Range, Chile

FIG. 13. Left M3–4 of SGOPV 3490 in A, labial, B, occlusal, and C, lingual views (C rotated upside down for easier comparison with A, B). Anterior to left in all CT segmentation images. Scale = 3 mm.

FIG 9 in Eomakhaira molossus, A New Saber-Toothed Sparassodont (Metatheria: Thylacosmilinae) from the Early Oligocene (?Tinguirirican) Cachapoal Locality, Andean Main Range, Chile

FIG 9. Mandible of the holotype of Eomakhaira molossus (SGOPV 3490). Right dentary in A, labial and C, lingual views. Left dentary in B, labial and D, lingual views. Colors of elements are the same as in figure 3. Abbreviations: cor, coronoid process of dentary; sulc, lingual sulcus of the lower canine; menf, mental foramina; symph, mandibular symphysis. Scale = 50 mm.

FIG. 18 in Eomakhaira molossus, A New Saber-Toothed Sparassodont (Metatheria: Thylacosmilinae) from the Early Oligocene (?Tinguirirican) Cachapoal Locality, Andean Main Range, Chile

FIG. 18. Results of parsimony phylogenetic analysis under implied weights with concavity constant k = 12, showing the single recovered most parsimonious tree (MPT). Eomakhaira molossus in bold. Numbers to lower left represent bootstrap values. Support values not given for Dasyuromorphia, as this node was constrained a priori (see text).

FIG 8 in Eomakhaira molossus, A New Saber-Toothed Sparassodont (Metatheria: Thylacosmilinae) from the Early Oligocene (?Tinguirirican) Cachapoal Locality, Andean Main Range, Chile

FIG 8. Left orbital region of the holotype of Eomakhaira molossus (SGOPV 3490) in oblique posterolateral view. Anterior to left. Colors of elements in this CT segmentation are the same as in figure 3. Abbreviations: laf, lacrimal foramen, mpf, minor palatine foramen; spf, sphenopalatine foramen. Scale = 30 mm.

FIG. 16 in Eomakhaira molossus, A New Saber-Toothed Sparassodont (Metatheria: Thylacosmilinae) from the Early Oligocene (?Tinguirirican) Cachapoal Locality, Andean Main Range, Chile

FIG. 16. Results of parsimony phylogenetic analysis under equal weights, showing the strict consensus of 12 most parsimonious trees (MPTs). Eomakhaira molossus in bold. Numbers to upper left of each node represent Bremer supports/decay indices, numbers to lower left of each node represent bootstrap values. Support values not given for Dasyuromorphia, as this node was constrained a priori (see text).

FIG 7 in Eomakhaira molossus, A New Saber-Toothed Sparassodont (Metatheria: Thylacosmilinae) from the Early Oligocene (?Tinguirirican) Cachapoal Locality, Andean Main Range, Chile

FIG 7. Posterior palate of the holotype of Eomakhaira molossus (SGOPV 3490), in oblique anterior view. Anterior to lower left. Shows the paired palatine tori and broken border of the minor palatine foramen. Colors of elements in this CT segmentation are the same as in figure 3. Abbreviations: mpf, minor palatine foramen; ptor, palatine tori. Scale = 10 mm.

FIG 6 in Eomakhaira molossus, A New Saber-Toothed Sparassodont (Metatheria: Thylacosmilinae) from the Early Oligocene (?Tinguirirican) Cachapoal Locality, Andean Main Range, Chile

FIG 6. Cranium of the holotype of Eomakhaira molossus (SGOPV 3490) in palatal view. Anterior to right. Colors of elements in this CT segmentation are the same as in figure 3. Abbreviations: mpps, medial postpalatine spine; pp, palatal pit; ptor, palatine torus; dental abbreviations as in Materials and Methods. Scale = 30 mm.

FIG 4. A in Eomakhaira molossus, A New Saber-Toothed Sparassodont (Metatheria: Thylacosmilinae) from the Early Oligocene (?Tinguirirican) Cachapoal Locality, Andean Main Range, Chile

FIG 4. A, Photograph and B, line drawing of the exposed right upper canine and postcanine dentition of SGOPV 3490, showing their extreme wear. In B, enamel is denoted in dark grey, dentine in brown, and wear surfaces by light grey. The morphology of these teeth is not entirely visible, as much of the occluded upper and lower jaws of the specimen remain encased in matrix (compare with figs. 3 and 9). Scale = 10 mm.