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Fig. 5 in Enamel microstructure and dental histology in a heterodontosaurid dinosaur: Heterodontosaurus tucki

Fig. 5. Simplified ornithischian phylogeny depicting characteristic schmelzmusters and enamel types for studied clades. Note: Presence of enamel tubules in Heterodontosaurus tucki dentary teeth remains unknown. Modified from Hwang (2005).

Fig. 3 in Enamel microstructure and dental histology in a heterodontosaurid dinosaur: Heterodontosaurus tucki

Fig. 3. Enamel microstructure of heterodontosaurid dinosaur Heterodontosaurus tucki Crompton and Charig, 1962 (BP/1/9007), from Lower Jurassic upper Elliot Massospondylus Assemblage Zone of South Africa. A. Scanning electron micrographs: A1, simplified, thin, labial edge enamel with incremental lines in transverse view; A2, thick, mesio-distal edge enamel exhibiting poorly organized crystallites and extremely infrequent enamel tubules in transverse view; A3, mesio-distal edge enamel exhibiting three enamel layers in longitudinal view. Long, sinuous, and continuous enamel tubules are frequently observed in this sectioning plane. B. Schematic enamel block depicting how enamel crystallite complexity might differ in different planes of sectioning. Abbreviations: BUL, basal unit layer; CUL, columnar unit layer; EDJ, enamel dentine junction; OES, outer enamel surface; PC, parallel crystallite.

Fig. 2 in Enamel microstructure and dental histology in a heterodontosaurid dinosaur: Heterodontosaurus tucki

Fig. 2. Maxillary tooth histology of heterodontosaurid dinosaur Heterodontosaurus tucki Crompton and Charig, 1962 (BP/1/9007), from Lower Jurassic upper Elliot Massospondylus Assemblage Zone of South Africa. A. Histological sections: A1, primary ridge: thick band of translucent dentine lines the labial edge of the tooth, no enamel is present; A2, whole tooth: transversely sectioned at the base of the wear facet; A3, mesial ridge: histologically distinct dentine thickens and enamel is absent; A4, labial edge: on the mesial distal edges the enamel is extremely thin, resulting from wear and likely a natural thinning of the enamel, histologically distinct dentine is present, but thin; A5, lateral edge: the enamel is thickest with no distinct dentine present. B. Scanning electron micrograph of labial edge of tooth showing crest formation from differential wear from the last stage of polishing.

Fig. 4 in Enamel microstructure and dental histology in a heterodontosaurid dinosaur: Heterodontosaurus tucki

Fig. 4. Scanning electron micrographs depicting histologically distinct dentine on the outer labial edge of maxillary teeth of heterodontosaurid dinosaur Heterodontosaurus tucki Crompton and Charig, 1962 (BP/1/9007), from Lower Jurassic upper Elliot Massospondylus Assemblage Zone of South Africa. A1, shows the change in dentinal tubule orientation from radially emanating (below black dashed line) to longitudinally emanating (above black dashed line, circular cross-sections) to the atubular dentine present on the outermost edge (above white dashed line). Inset shows the position of the micrograph on the tooth cross section. A2, depicts the marked decrease in dentinal tubules in the outer ~20 µm of dentine. Inset shows that only intertubular dentine is present and the absence of occluded tubules which would be expected if this was derived from sclerotization of the dentine. A3, high magnification image of open dentinal tubules in the histologically distinct enamel (above black dashed line in A1). A4, close up showing the transition zone of tubule orientation. White arrow shows tubule cut along its long axis; black arrows show orthogonally sectioned tubules (circular). More circular tubules are present above the black dashed line than below indicating the zone of tubule orientation shift.

Fig. 1 in Enamel microstructure and dental histology in a heterodontosaurid dinosaur: Heterodontosaurus tucki

Fig. 1. Heterodontosaurid dinosaur Heterodontosaurus tucki Crompton and Charig, 1962 (BP/1/9007), from Lower Jurassic upper Elliot Massospondylus Assemblage Zone of South Africa. Left partial maxillary tooth row in lingual view; preserves partial crowns with wear facets. Blue plane indicates location of histological transverse sections from the middle of the tooth row.

Fig. 2. Sauropod dinosaur Brachiosaurus altithorax Riggs, 1903 in Novel pneumatic features in the ribs of the sauropod dinosaur Brachiosaurus altithorax

Fig. 2. Sauropod dinosaur Brachiosaurus altithorax Riggs, 1903, holotype FMNH PR 25107 from Dinosaur Quarry No. 13 near Grand Junction, Colorado, dating to the Kimmeridgian–Tithonian ages of the Late Jurassic, right dorsal rib "Rib A" in posterior view with proximal to the left. A1, the whole proximal half of the rib; a distal portion also exists, of similar length but without features relevant to this study; A2, close-up of the tuberculum, highlighting the complex network of support structures that show signs of speculative reconstruction. Circles highlight two possible sites of the "second tubercle" referred to by Riggs (1901: 549, 1903: 303, 1904: 239) based on Marsh's illustration (1896: figs. 7, 8), reproduced here in Fig. 4; A3, close-up of the pneumatic foramen in the shaft of the rib, showing natural bone texture around the margin and no indication of breakage. Scale bars provide only a rough indication of the size of the elements: see the text for measurements.

Fig. 1 in Novel pneumatic features in the ribs of the sauropod dinosaur Brachiosaurus altithorax

Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of a sauropod dorsal rib. A. Representative dorsal vertebra, in anterior view, with diapophysis and parapophysis labeled: these are the part of the vertebra that the rib articulates with; modified from dorsal vertebra 4 of Camarasaurus supremus Cope 1877, AMNH 5760'/D-X-131 in anterior view (Osborn and Mook 1921: pl. 70). B. Representative dorsal rib, shown in "anterior view" as described in the Anatomical Nomenclature section, with the capitulum, tuberculum and shaft labeled. The principal directions are illustrated: proximal towards the articulation with the vertebra and distal away from it along the shaft; medial towards the body core and lateral towards skin; modified from left rib 4 of Camarasaurus supremus AMNH 5761/R-A-24 in anterior view (Osborn and Mook 1921: fig. 71). C. The articulated rib cage of a mounted sauropod in left dorsolateral view with a single dorsal rib highlighted to emphasize that, due to the parapophyses being located more anteriorly than the diapophyses, the ribs do not lie in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the torso; photograph by MPT of the mounted skeleton of the Apatosaurus louisae Holland 1915, holotype CM 3018 in the public gallery of the Carnegie Museum, in right dorsolateral view, reversed.

Fig. 4. A in Novel pneumatic features in the ribs of the sauropod dinosaur Brachiosaurus altithorax

Fig. 4. A cervical rib of sauropod dinosaur Apatosaurus ajax Marsh, 1877 (specimen number unknown), as illustrated by Marsh (1896: figs. 7, 8), including the original caption. Note the "posterior process" marked as "r" in the illustration. This is probably the "second tubercle" referred to by Riggs (1901: 549, 1903: 303, 1904: 239), which he considered some part of one or more of the Brachiosaurus ribs to be homologous with.

Fig. 5 in Novel pneumatic features in the ribs of the sauropod dinosaur Brachiosaurus altithorax

Fig. 5. Gallery of pneumatic features in a selection of dorsal ribs of sauropods, showing a range of pneumatic morphologies from most (A) to least (G) typical. A. Brontosaurus excelsus Marsh, 1879, specimen not indicated but likely the holotype YPM 1980 from Como Bluff, Wyoming; Kimmeridgian– Tithonian (Late Jurassic). A1, unspecified right dorsal rib in anterior view showing pneumatic fossa in tuberculum (modified from Marsh 1896: fig. 9); A2, same rib in posterior view showing a corresponding fossa in the tuberculum, traversed by an accessory lamina (modified from Marsh 1896: fig. 10). B. Giraffatitan brancai (Janensch, 1914), specimen not indicated but likely MB.R.2181 from Tendaguru, Tanzania; Kimmeridgian–Tithonian (Late Jurassic), that forms the core of the mounted skeleton in the atrium of the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin. B1, 2nd left dorsal rib in posterior view, showing pneumatic fossa in tuberculum (modified from Janensch 1950b: fig. 108); B2, same rib in anterior view, showing corresponding fossa in the tuberculum (modified from Janensch 1950b: fig. 107). C. Apatosaurus louisae Holland 1915, holotype CM 3018 from Dinosaur National Monument, Utah; Kimmeridgian–Tithonian (Late Jurassic), 2nd right dorsal rib in anterior view, showing pneumatic fossa between capitulum and tuberculum (modified from Gilmore 1936: pl. 29). D. Malawisaurus dixeyi (Haughton, 1928), Mal-282-2 from Karonga District, northern Malawi; Aptian (Early Cretaceous), left dorsal rib in posterior view, showing pneumatic foramen between capitulum and tuberculum, and fossa below capitulum. Photograph by Eric Gorscak. E. Brontomerus mcintoshi Taylor, Wedel, and Cifelli, 2011, OMNH 27766 from Grand County, eastern Utah; Aptian–Albian (Early Cretaceous), right dorsal rib 1 in posterior view, showing a narrow sheet of bone connecting capitulum and tuberculum and a pneumatic space entering the shaft in front of it. Photograph by MPT, used in Taylor et al. (2011: fig. 7). F. Rapetosaurus krausei Curry Rogers and Forster, 2001, SMM P2007.4.1 from Mahajanga basin, northwestern Madagascar; Maastrichtian (latest Cretaceous), dorsal rib, position and orientation unknown, showing a complex set of pneumatic features in the tuberculum and between it and the capitulum. Photograph by Kristina Curry Rogers. G. Rukwatitan bisepultus Gorscak, O'Connor, Stevens, and Roberts, 2014, holotype RRBP 07409 from Rukwa Rift Basin, southwestern Tanzania; Aptian–Cenomanian (Middle Cretaceous). G1, anterior?left dorsal rib in posterior view; G2, close-up with highlights indication the locations of thin ridges described as a "capitulotubercular web" and interpreted as pneumatic by Gorscak et al. (2014: 1142–1143). Not to scale. Photograph by Eric Gorscak and Pat O'Connor.

Fig. 6 in Allometric growth in the frontals of the Mongolian theropod dinosaur Tarbosaurus bataar

Fig. 6. Björk method of superimposition of the frontals in dorsal/ventral views. A. Scaled to same length between prefrontonasal process and the frontoparietal suture. B. Smallest and largest specimen superimposed. C. Smallest and second largest specimen superimposed. D. Scaled to same width between medial edge of the orbital slot and the midline. E. Smallest and largest specimen superimposed. F. Smallest and second largest specimen superimposed. Largest specimens preserve entire nasal process, which emphasize relative shortening during growth. Not to scale.

Fig. 7 in Allometric growth in the frontals of the Mongolian theropod dinosaur Tarbosaurus bataar

Fig. 7. Björk method of superimposition of the frontals in lateral/medial views. A. Scaled to same length between prefrontonasal process and the frontoparietal suture. B. Smallest and largest specimen superimposed. C. Scaled to same depth near the lacrimal socket region. D. Smallest and largest specimen superimposed. Largest specimens preserve entire nasal process, which emphasize relative shortening during growth. Not to scale.

Fig. 5 in Allometric growth in the frontals of the Mongolian theropod dinosaur Tarbosaurus bataar

Fig. 5. Bivariate allometric results of different parts of Tarbosaurus bataar frontals. A. Length of the frontal between prefrontonasal process and the frontoparietal suture (pfn-pl length, 4) and the length of the postorbital suture (ps length, 10). B. Length of the frontal between prefrontonasal process and the frontoparietal suture (4) and the depth of the anterior part of the postorbital suture (rps depth, 11). C. Length of the frontal between prefrontonasal process and the frontoparietal suture (4) and the depth of the posterior part of the postorbital suture (cps depth, 12). D. Depth of the anterior part of the postorbital suture (11) and the depth of the posterior part of the postorbital suture (12). E. Depth of the frontal at the region that is immediately anterior to the most anterior point of the sagittal crest (depth, 9) and the depth of the anterior part of the postorbital suture (11). F. Depth of the frontal at the region that is immediately anterior to the most anterior point of the sagittal crest (9) and the depth of the posterior part of the postorbital suture (12). G. Length of the frontal between prefrontonasal process and the frontoparietal suture (4) and the length of the dorsotemporal fossa (dtf length, 7). H. Width of the frontal between medial edge of the orbital slot and the midline (os-mid width, 5) and the length of the dorsotemporal fossa (7).

Fig. 1. Tyrannosaurid theropod Tarbosaurus bataar Maleev, 1955a in Allometric growth in the frontals of the Mongolian theropod dinosaur Tarbosaurus bataar

Fig. 1. Tyrannosaurid theropod Tarbosaurus bataar Maleev, 1955a from Mongolia, Nemegt Formation, Maastrichtian; frontals used to create bone silhouettes for superimposition. A. MPC-D 107/10, from Bugiin Tsav, in dorsal (A1) and lateral (A2) views. B. MPC-D 107/09, Bugiin Tsav, in dorsal (B1) and lateral (B2) views. C. MPC-D 107/05, Nemegt, in dorsal view. D. MPC-D 107/11, Bugiin Tsav, in dorsal view. E. MPC-D 107/13, Nemegt, in dorsal (E1) and lateral (E2) views. F. MPC-D 107/22, Bugiin Tsav, in dorsal (F1) and lateral (F2) views. G. MPC-D 107/06, Bugiin Tsav, in dorsal (G1) and medial (G2) views. The arrangement is from smallest to largest. Scale bars 50 mm.

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Fig. 7. Representative theropod dinosaur teeth from the J&M in New Late Cretaceous microvertebrate assemblage from the Campanian-Maastrichtian Williams Fork Formation, northwestern Colorado, USA, and its paleoenvironmental implications

Fig. 7. Representative theropod dinosaur teeth from the J&M site, Colorado, USA, Williams Fork Formation, Campanian–Maastrichtian, Upper Cretaceous. A. cf. Richardoestesia sp., MWC 8865, tooth crown in labial view (A1), mesial (A2) and distal (A3) serration detail views. B. Dromaeosauridae indet., MWC 8872, tooth crown fragment in lingual (B1), distal (B2) and mesial (B3) serration detail views. C. Hadrosauridae indet., MWC 8896, tooth crown in occlusal (C1) and lateral (C2) views.

Fig. 4 in Allometric growth in the frontals of the Mongolian theropod dinosaur Tarbosaurus bataar

Fig. 4. Bivariate allometric results of different parts of Tarbosaurus bataar frontals. A. Length of the frontal between prefrontonasal process and the frontoparietal suture (pfn-pl length, 4) and the width of the nasal process (np width, 1). B. Width of the frontal between medial edge of the orbital slot and the midline (os-mid width, 5) and the width of the nasal process (1). C. Length of the frontal between prefrontonasal process and the frontoparietal suture (4) and the width of the prefrontal suture (prf width, 2). D. Width of the frontal between medial edge of the orbital slot and the midline (5) and the width of the prefrontal suture (2). E. Length of the frontal between prefrontonasal process and the frontoparietal suture (4) and the width of the lacrimal socket (ls width, 3). F. Width of the frontal between medial edge of the orbital slot (5) and the midline and the width of the lacrimal socket (3).

Fig. 3 in Allometric growth in the frontals of the Mongolian theropod dinosaur Tarbosaurus bataar

Fig. 3. Bivariate allometric results of different parts of Tarbosaurus bataar frontals. A. Width of the frontal between medial edge of the orbital slot and the midline (os-mid width, 5) and the depth of the frontal at the region that is immediately anterior to the most anterior point of the sagittal crest (depth, 9). B. Length of the frontal between prefrontonasal process and the frontoparietal suture (pfn-pl length, 4) and the depth of the frontal at the region that is immediately anterior to the most anterior point of the sagittal crest (9). C. Width of the frontal between medial edge of the orbital slot and the midline (5) and the length of the frontal between prefrontonasal process and the frontoparietal suture (4). D. Length of the frontal between prefrontonasal process and the frontoparietal suture (4) and the width of the frontal between the most lateral point of the posterior shelf and the midline (cds-mid width, 6). E. Length of the frontal between prefrontonasal process and the frontoparietal suture (4) and the brain length (8). F. Length of the frontal between prefrontonasal process and the frontoparietal suture (4) and the width of the frontal between medial edge of the orbital slot and the midline (5). G. Length of the frontal between prefrontonasal process and the frontoparietal suture (4) and the width of the frontal between the most lateral point of the posterior shelf and the midline (6). H. Width of the frontal between the most lateral point of the posterior shelf and the midline (6) and the width of the frontal between medial edge of the orbital slot and the midline (5).

Fig. 15. Age structure d in Research history, taphonomy, and age structure of a mass accumulation of the ornithopod dinosaur Dysalotosaurus lettowvorbecki from the Upper Jurassic of Tanzania

Fig. 15. Age structure d(x) of Dysalotosaurus lettowvorbecki. A. Linear regression between histological age and distal femur width of D. lettowvorbecki (based on Hübner 2012) for estimating the age of the remaining specimens. B. Age distribution d(x) of D. lettowvorbecki from the Ig/WJ-locality showing the "total" (N = 138) and "average" (N = 131) method for estimating the number of deaths per age. C. Age distribution d(x) of D. lettowvorbecki of bonebed 3 (N = 45) and bonebed 4 (N = 52) on basis of the "total" method. D. Similar distribution based on the "average" method (bonebed 3: N = 41; bonebed 4: N = 48. E. Comparison of the age distributions d(x) (in percentage) of D. lettowvorbecki (yellow bars), the Late Cretaceous tyrannosaurid Albertosaurus sarcophagus (red solid line, based on Erickson et al. 2010), and the Early Cretaceous basal ceratopsid Psittacosaurus lujiatunensis (blue solid line, Erickson et al. 2009b). F. Comparison of the age distributions d(x) (in percentage) of D. lettowvorbecki (yellow bars) and large mammals: hypothetical attritional population (red solid line; modified after Klein 1982b), and the Miocene rhinocerotid Teleoceras proterum (red dashed line; based on Mihlbachler 2003); hypothetical catastrophic population (blue solid line; modified after Klein 1982b) and the Eocene hippomorph Mesatirhinus sp. (blue dashed line; based on Turnbull and Martill 1988).

Fig. 13 in Research history, taphonomy, and age structure of a mass accumulation of the ornithopod dinosaur Dysalotosaurus lettowvorbecki from the Upper Jurassic of Tanzania

Fig. 13. Sketches by Ina or Hans Reck of articulated partial skeletons found in 1912. According to Table 2, both specimens were found in the uppermost bonebed 4. A. The German notes on the sketch tell correspondingly that this skeleton was lying with its long-axis in W-E-orientation, that it was only missing the lower part of the foot and parts of the tail, and that the skull was broken and removed separately. The skull was catalogued as WJ9000 and the postcranial skeleton as WJ5790-5820 (the latter were lost in Hamburg during WWII) which can be found in H. Reck's catalogue. The sketch was drawn on the 28th of September. B. The arrow points to a series of at least 20 articulated vertebrae. Another vertebral series, next to it on the right, is still partly covered in clay. Right next to the latter one can see the word Kicwa! (Swahili for skull). At the bottom of the image are noted teeth and a jawbone. According to the note in the lower left corner, the illustrator was unsure whether there were one small vertebral series or two. The numbers WJ9009-9023 are also present in H. Reck's catalogue. The sketch is dated 2nd of October 1912 (Pal. Mus SII, TendaguruExpedition 9.1, Archive of the Historical Division of the MfN).

Fig. 10 in Research history, taphonomy, and age structure of a mass accumulation of the ornithopod dinosaur Dysalotosaurus lettowvorbecki from the Upper Jurassic of Tanzania

Fig. 10. Thin section of the tibia GPIT/RE/3724 of ornithopod dinosaur Dysalotosaurus lettowvorbecki Pompeckj, 1920, from Kimmeridgian, Late Jurassic of Tendaguru, Tanzania, cut within the lower third of the long bone shaft. Most of the marrow cavity is filled by fine, calcareous marl. Note that the top of the cavity has been filled subsequently by calcite crystals, which indicates that the bone was embedded in the substrate as oriented as in this image.

Fig. 9 in Research history, taphonomy, and age structure of a mass accumulation of the ornithopod dinosaur Dysalotosaurus lettowvorbecki from the Upper Jurassic of Tanzania

Fig. 9. Fully prepared block MB.R.1910 (WJ5840) of ornithopod dinosaur Dysalotosaurus lettowvorbecki Pompeckj, 1920, from Kimmeridgian, Late Jurassic of Tendaguru, Tanzania, within the bonebeds.