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Slower environmental cycles maintain greater life-history variation within populations
<p>Populations in nature are comprised of individual life histories, whose variation underpins ecological and evolutionary processes. Yet the forces of environmental selection that shape intrapopulation life-history variation are still not well understood, and efforts have largely focused on random (stochastic) fluctuations of the environment. However, a ubiquitous mode of environmental fluctuation in nature is cyclical, whose periodicities can change independently of stochasticity. Here we test theoretically-based hypotheses for whether shortened ('Fast') or lengthened ('Slow') environmental cycles should generate higher intrapopulation variation of life history phenotypes. We show, through a combination of individual-based modelling and a multi-generational laboratory selection experiment using the tidepool copepod Tigriopus californicus, that slower environmental cycles maintain higher levels of intrapopulation variation. Surprisingly, the effect of environmental periodicity on variation was much stronger than that of stochasticity. Thus, our results show that periodicity is an important facet of fluctuating environments for life-history variation.</p>
Figure 9 in The life-cycle of Hemigalichus chrotogale sp. nov. (Acari: Listrophoridae), with comparative observations on listrophorid morphology
Figure 9. Male genital organs. (A) Lynxacarus mustelae Mégnin; (B) Lynxacarus mustelae Mégnin, folds removed; (C) Aplodontochirus borealis Fain and Hyland. Abbreviations: a, aedeagus; d.a., post-dorsal apodeme; d.o., diachilous orifice; g.c., genital capsule; g.p., genital papilla; g.v., genital valves; i.s., intermediate sclerite; p.s., progenital sclerite.
Figure 8 in The life-cycle of Hemigalichus chrotogale sp. nov. (Acari: Listrophoridae), with comparative observations on listrophorid morphology
Figure 8. Hemigalichus chrotogale sp. nov., details of female. (A–D) Legs I–IV in ventral view, respectively; (E) ovipore; (F) pretarsal ambulacarum, dorsal view. Abbreviations: a.s., ambulacral stalk; b.p., basilar piece; c, condylophore; c.g., condylophore guide; c.s., central sclerite; d.o., diachilous orifice; f, flap; f.s., fan-shaped structure; g.p., genital papilla; p.f., progenital fold; ps.f., posterogynal fold; u.l., undulate lamina.
Figure 4 in The life-cycle of Hemigalichus chrotogale sp. nov. (Acari: Listrophoridae), with comparative observations on listrophorid morphology
Figure 4. Hemigalichus chrotogale sp. nov., homeomorphic male (holotype). (A) Dorsal view; (B) ventral view; (C) opisthosoma, ventral view. Abbreviations: i.a., internal apodeme; l. m., lobar membrane; l. r., longitudinal ridge; op. s., opisthogastric sclerite; t. l., terminal lobes. Scale bars: 100 mm (A, B); 50 mm (C).
Figure 2 in The life-cycle of Hemigalichus chrotogale sp. nov. (Acari: Listrophoridae), with comparative observations on listrophorid morphology
Figure 2. Hemigalichus chrotogale sp. nov., protonymph. (A) Dorsal view; (B) ventral view; (C) leg IV in ventral view. Scale bars: 25 mm (A, B); 50 mm (C).
Figure 1 in The life-cycle of Hemigalichus chrotogale sp. nov. (Acari: Listrophoridae), with comparative observations on listrophorid morphology
Figure 1. Hemigalichus chrotogale sp. nov., larva. (A) Lateral view; (B–D) legs I–III in ventral view, respectively. Abbreviations: c.f., clasping flap, l.i., lateral incision, l.t., lateral tooth, o.g., opening of oil gland, p.c., podocephalic canal, s.g., opening of supracoxal gland. Scale bars: 25 mm (A); 50 mm (B–D).
Figure 3 in The life-cycle of Hemigalichus chrotogale sp. nov. (Acari: Listrophoridae), with comparative observations on listrophorid morphology
Figure 3. Hemigalichus chrotogale sp. nov., teleonymph. (A) Ventral view; (B) coxa of leg II; (C) leg IV in ventral view. Abbreviations: fe, femur; ge, genu; ta, tarsus; ti, tibia; tr, trochanter. Scale bars: 100 mm (A); 50 mm (B, C).
Figure 3 in Biology and life cycle of Tmetonyx similis (G. O. Sars, 1891) (Amphipoda, Lysianassidae), a scavenging amphipod from the continental slope of the Mediterranean
Figure 3. Size to weight ratios of males and females collected on 11 June 1990. L, length in mm; W, weight in mg.
Figure 4 in Biology and life cycle of Tmetonyx similis (G. O. Sars, 1891) (Amphipoda, Lysianassidae), a scavenging amphipod from the continental slope of the Mediterranean
Figure 4. Maximum and minimum number of eggs per female, depending on the size. L, length in mm; N, number of eggs.
Figure 2 in Biology and life cycle of Tmetonyx similis (G. O. Sars, 1891) (Amphipoda, Lysianassidae), a scavenging amphipod from the continental slope of the Mediterranean
Figure 2. Size distribution of the animals collected in the whole population, juveniles, males, and females.
Figure 6 in Biology and life cycle of Tmetonyx similis (G. O. Sars, 1891) (Amphipoda, Lysianassidae), a scavenging amphipod from the continental slope of the Mediterranean
Figure 6. Size distribution of Tmetonyx similis in Toulon Canyon, in 1990. Lines show the development of one cohort in the various generations of males and females.
Figure 3 in The life cycle of Diploproctodaeum arothroni Bray and Nahhas, 1998 (Digenea: Lepocreadiidae), with a comment on the parasitic castration of its molluscan intermediate host
Figure 3. Female gonad of the oyster Crassostrea cuccullata (100×). (A) Normal; (B) severely infected and completely castrated.
Figure 1 in The life cycle of Diploproctodaeum arothroni Bray and Nahhas, 1998 (Digenea: Lepocreadiidae), with a comment on the parasitic castration of its molluscan intermediate host
Figure 1. Stages in the life cycle of Diploproctodaeum arothroni Bray and Nahhas, 1998. (A) Young mother sporocyst; (B) mature mother sporocyst; (C) young daughter redia; (D) fully mature daughter redia; (E) fully mature cercaria; (F) metacercaria. Scale bars: 500 Mm (A–D); 200 Mm (E, F).
Figure 2 in Parallelism in secondary loss of sex from a heterogonic life cycle on different host plants in the Andricus mukaigawae complex (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae), with taxonomic notes
Figure 2. Representative karyotype of Andricus targionii (s. lat.) on Quercus dentata, Kitami. Scale bar: 10 mm.
Figure 1 in Parallelism in secondary loss of sex from a heterogonic life cycle on different host plants in the Andricus mukaigawae complex (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae), with taxonomic notes
Figure 1. Andricus targionii (s. lat.) populations on Quercus dentata used for the present chromosome study. 1, Kitami; 2, Minami-chitose; 3, Aomori; 4, Mt Haruna; 5, Lake Yamanaka; 6, Lake Shirakaba.
Figure 4 in Specifics of life cycle and damage of Oligonychus ununguis (Acari: Tetranychidae) on introduced species of coniferous plants in conditions of megalopolis
Figure 4. Relationship between the start of mass hatching of O. ununguis larvae and HC values at air temperature higher than 10 ℃.
Figure 2 in Specifics of life cycle and damage of Oligonychus ununguis (Acari: Tetranychidae) on introduced species of coniferous plants in conditions of megalopolis
Figure 2. Relationship between shoot growth of P. menziesii var. viridis Franco plants and the level of damage caused by O. ununguis.
Figure 3 in Specifics of life cycle and damage of Oligonychus ununguis (Acari: Tetranychidae) on introduced species of coniferous plants in conditions of megalopolis
Figure 3. Hydrothermal coefficient (HC) values for periods after the threshold temperature of 10 ℃ (2012– 2016).
Figure 1 in Specifics of life cycle and damage of Oligonychus ununguis (Acari: Tetranychidae) on introduced species of coniferous plants in conditions of megalopolis
Figure 1. Density levels (%) of Oligonychus ununguis on host plants of species and subspecies of Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco and Picea glauca (Moench.) Voss. in the Fomin Botanical Garden (2012–2016).
Figure 11 in Hybridization in the evolution of animal form and life-cycle
Figure 11. Four mid-Cambrian species from the Burgess Shale of British Columbia. A, Laggania cambria (= Anomalocaris nathorsti), ventral; B, Anomalocaris canadensis, ventral; C, Amiskwia sagittiformis; D, Nectocaris pteryx. Scale bar = ∼200 mm (A, B), ∼5 mm (C, D). [A, B reproduced with permission from S M Gonn III (from 'The Anomalocarid Bauplan' http://www.geocities.com/goniagnostus/background3.html); C, D, from Marianne Collins in Gould, 1989.]
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Allen Brain Atlas
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International Brain Laboratory public data
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OpenNeuro
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