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3,183 results for “Parent”
Are offspring begging levels exaggerated beyond the parental optimum? Evidence from a bidirectional selection experiment
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Data from: Snowmelt and laying date shape the parental care strategy of a high-Arctic shorebird
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Data from: Telomere heritability and parental age at conception effects in a wild avian population
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Data and code from: Parental care liberates juvenile growth: A common-garden test of the evolutionary benefits of care
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Data for: Effects of parental age on salt stress tolerance in an aquatic plant
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Effects of season length and uniparental care efficiency on the evolution of parental care
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Divergence in reproductive behaviors is associated with the evolutionary loss of parental care
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Data from: Parental effects of male alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs) on ARTs of haploid sons
1. Alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs) represent distinct behavioral phenotypes to maximize reproductive success within the same sex, primarily males, and may be genetically and/or conditionally determined. Across animals, intragenerational determinants of conditional ARTs are relatively well understood but transgenerational (non-genetic) effects of parental ARTs on filial ARTs are largely unknown. 2. Here, we assessed parental effects of conditional male ARTs on sons' ARTs in arrhenotokous spider mites Tetranychus urticae. Arrhenotoky, i.e. males arising from unfertilized and females from fertilized eggs, sets the stage for sexual and transgenerational conflicts between male mates and females and their sons. Male ARTs of T. urticae are dichotomous, fighting and sneaking, and apparent in male-male combat and pre-copulatory guarding behavior. Due to haplodiploidy, male ARTs can only exert non-genetic effects on sons of their mates. 3. We hypothesized that parental ART effects are likely to occur in T. urticae because maternal ART mating status (unmated, sneaker- or fighter-mated) is indicative of the offspring' social environment and ART flexibility rather prevails in younger than older males. 4. Fighter-mated mothers produced more offspring than unmated mothers and had a more daughter-biased offspring sex ratio than sneaker-mated mothers. Sons of fighter-mated mothers were more likely to guard and did so earlier than sons of unmated and sneaker-mated mothers. Unmated and sneaker-mated, but not fighter-mated, mothers produced sneaker sons that were quicker to start guarding than were fighter sons. 5. Proximately, parental ART effects on sons' ARTs were most likely mediated by differences in seminal fluids. Ultimately, observed alterations of sons' ARTs represent adaptive maternal responses to ART phenotypes rather than manipulation by male mates. 6. Fighter-mated mothers tuned filial ARTs to male-competitive environments whereas unmated and sneaker-mated mothers tuned them to benign environments. Observed alterations in reproductive traits of fighter-mated mothers suggest adaptive manipulation by the fighter phenotype or aligned male and female interests. 7. Overall, our study documents previously unknown transgenerational ART effects on haploid sons' ARTs.
Data from: Risk of predation on offspring reduces parental provisioning, but not flight performance or survival across early life stages
<ol> <li>Developmental responses can help young animals reduce predation risk but can also yield costs to performance and survival in subsequent life stages with major implications for lifetime fitness. Compensatory mechanisms may evolve to offset such costs, but evidence from natural systems is largely lacking.</li> <li>In songbirds, increased nest predation risk should favour reduced provisioning, but also young that fledge (leave their nest) at an earlier age. Both responses can result in fledglings with shorter wings, reduced mobility, and decreased survival. Young may compensate for shorter wings developmentally by reallocating resources towards feather development or behaviourally by adjusting flight kinematics or habitat use. However, underfed young may lack the capacity to express these phenotypes due to insufficient resources or an inability to adjust allocation of resources.</li> <li>Using predation risk experiments and 29 years of observational field data, we test whether increased nest predation risk reduces flight performance and survival during the fledgling stage and explore potential mechanisms that might underlie these effects. We show that young from high-risk nests did not leave the nest earlier on average, but wing growth was slower likely due to observed reductions in parental feeding rates. Wings were shorter in high-risk nests when fledglings left the nest early. Yet, fledglings from high-risk nests showed improved flight performance for a given wing length such that flight performance at fledging did not differ between young from high-risk and low-risk nests. Young from high-risk nests may have offset the costs of shorter wings on flight performance by accelerating the emergence of flight feathers from their sheaths to reduce wing porosity, though evidence for this mechanism was mixed. Fledglings from high-risk nests also selected habitat with denser woody vegetation compared with young from low-risk nests.</li> <li>Together, these developmental and behavioural responses seem to mitigate the expected effects of increased nest predation risk on fledgling survival. Ultimately, our results show that offspring predation risk can affect parental provisioning and offspring morphology without major implications for performance and survival in subsequent life stages.</li> </ol>
Data from: Feeding increases the number of offspring but decreases parental investment of Red Sea coral Stylophora pistillata
<p>1. Successful reproductive output and recruitment is crucial to coral persistence and recovery following anthropogenic stress. Feeding is known to alter coral physiology and increase resilience to bleaching. 2. The goal of the study was to address the knowledge gap of the influence of feeding on reproductive output and offspring phenotype. 3. Colonies of <em>Stylophora pistillata</em> from the Northern Gulf of Aqaba (Red Sea) were fed an Artemia diet or unfed for five months during gametogenesis, fertilisation, and brooding. In addition, time to settlement and mortality of planulae were assessed at water temperatures ranging from winter temperature (22°C) to three degrees above average peak summer temperature (31°C). A range of physiological parameters were measured in parents and offspring. 4. In brooding parents, feeding significantly increased protein concentration and more than tripled the number of released planulae. Planulae from unfed colonies had higher chlorophyll per symbiont concentration and concomitantly higher photosynthetic efficiency compared to planulae from fed parents. In settlement assays, planulae showed a similar thermal resistance as known for this Red Sea adult population. Mortality was greater in planulae from unfed parents at ambient and 3°C above ambient temperature despite higher per offspring investment in terms of total fatty acid content. Fatty acid profiles and relative abundances were generally conserved between different fed and unfed colonies but planulae were enriched in monounsaturated fatty acids relative to adults, i.e., 16:1, 18:1, 20:1, 22:1, and 24:1 isomers. 5. Ultimately the availability of zooplankton could influence population physiology and recruitment in corals.</p>
Climate and mating systems as drivers of global diversity of parental care in frogs
<p><b>Aim</b></p> <p>Amphibians exhibit unusually diverse reproductive modes, including a wide array of parental care strategies. The evolutionary drivers of this diversity, however, remain unclear. Here we investigate three major factors which may predict interspecific variation in parental care strategies: climate, intrasexual selection and social environment. We hypothesise that some care forms evolved to cope with harsh conditions such as dry or unpredictable habitats. We contrast this prediction with the hypothesis that parental roles have coevolved with the social environment and mating systems. </p> <p><b>Location</b></p> <p>Global.</p> <p><b>Major taxa studied</b></p> <p>Frogs and toads (Anura, Amphibia).</p> <p><b>Time period</b></p> <p>Extant taxa that represent approximately 220 million years of evolutionary history</p> <p><b>Methods</b></p> <p>Using geographic and behavioural data for 971 species of frogs and toads that represent 45 anuran families, we quantify the global distribution of four forms of parenting separately for males and females: nest building, nest and/or tadpole attendance, carrying and nourishment. We use phylogenetic comparative analyses to investigate whether climate, social environment and mating systems predict interspecific variation in parental care.</p> <p><b>Results</b></p> <p>Our results show that climatic effects contribute to parental care diversity: under cool and humid climates males provide offspring attendance, while endotrophy, whereby the female provides all nutrients for the offspring until metamorphosis, occurs under predictable temperatures. In addition, we found other associations between mating systems and parental care forms: uniparental clutch attendance by males is present in species with territorial defence, while cooperative nest building co-occurs with sperm competition. The type of parental care is not associated with adult sex ratios.</p> <p><b>Main conclusions</b></p> <p>No specific form of care is associated with hostile environments; actually, some care forms occur under beneficial conditions, while others are used independently from the climate. Instead, parenting diversity has closely coevolved with mating systems in frogs.</p>
Indirect parental effects on offspring fitness by egg-derived fluids in an external fertiliser
<p>The capacity for parents to influence offspring phenotypes via nongenetic inheritance is currently a major area of focus in evolutionary biology. Intriguing recent evidence suggests that sexual interactions among males and females, both before and during mating, are important mediators of such effects. Sexual interactions typically extend beyond gamete release, involving both sperm and eggs, and their associated fluids. However, the potential for gamete-level interactions to induce transgenerational parental effects remains under-investigated. Here, we test for such effects using an emerging model system for studying gamete interactions, the external fertiliser Mytilus galloprovincialis. We employed a split-ejaculate design to test whether exposing sperm to egg-derived chemicals (ECs) from one female would affect fertilisation rate and offspring survival when those sperm were used to fertilise a different female's eggs. We found significant and separate effects of ECs from non-fertilising females on both fertilisation rate and offspring survival. The offspring survival effect indicates that EC-driven interactions can have transgenerational implications for offspring fitness independent of the genotypes inherited by those offspring. These findings provide a rare test of indirect parental effects driven exclusively by gamete-level interactions, and to our knowledge the first evidence that such effects occur via the gametic fluids of females.</p>
Female and male plumage colour is linked to parental quality, pairing and extra-pair mating in a tropical passerine
<p>Sexual selection has been proposed to drive the evolution of elaborate phenotypic traits in males, which often confer success in competition or mating. However, in many species both males and females display such traits, although studies investigating selection acting in both sexes are scarce. In this study, we investigated whether plumage ornamentation is sexually selected in female and male lovely fairy-wrens <em>Malurus amabilis</em>, a cooperatively breeding songbird. We found that female and male plumage colour was correlated with parental quality but not with individual quality and survival. We also found evidence of positive assortative mating based on plumage colour. Microsatellite analyses of paternity indicated that the lovely fairy-wren has high levels of extra-pair paternity, with 53% of offspring (in 58% of broods, of 57% of females) resulting from extra-pair mating. Female and male plumage colour did not predict reproductive success or the proportion of extra-pair offspring in their own nest, but less colourful males obtained higher extra-pair paternity when paired with more colourful females, and gained overall higher total paternity (own nest and other nests). We argue that plumage colour may be under sex-specific selection, highlighting the importance of looking at both sexes in studies of sexual selection and ornament evolution. The current findings together with previous study, suggest that plumage colour in female and male lovely fairy-wrens appears to be an honest signal relevant in both intra and inter-sexual competition contexts.</p>
Supplementary data for the article: Parental age does not influence offspring telomeres during early life in common gulls (Larus canus)
<p>R code and data for generating supplementary figures and tables for the article "Parental age does not influence offspring telomeres during early life in common gulls (Larus canus)"</p>
Data from: Parental response to intruder females altered by ornamentation and mate quality in a biparental fish
In many monogamous species females behave aggressively toward other females, as they may threaten their exclusive access to paternal resources. However, in species with a high degree of breeding asynchrony not all females are true reproductive rivals. Female ornamentation that advertises sexual receptivity is a possible mechanism whereby parental females could assess the potential threat of rival females and attack only those which could challenge their mating status. Convict cichlids (Amatitlania siquia) are sexually dichromatic, monogamous fish that exhibit biparental care. Females develop gold ventral coloration when reproductively receptive and actively court males. We presented breeding pairs of convict cichlids with confined conspecific females to investigate whether parental response was affected by the intruder's reproductive status. We also investigated whether differences in partner quality within breeding pairs mediated the response to intruders, as mate quality influences both intra- and intersexual dynamics in many monogamous species. We found parental females responded more aggressively to reproductive intruders and that parental females mated to high quality males decreased the aggression they directed at general brood predators during the reproductive intruder presentation. Contrary to our predictions, we also found that males behaved aggressively toward reproductive intruders, particularly when paired with small females. Our results indicate that both parents engage in pair-bond defense and that differences in partner quality determine the level of aggression directed at extra-pair reproductive females. These findings suggest that when biparental care greatly increases offspring survival, reproductive success for both sexes may be maximized by cooperation and coordination, rather than conflict.
Figure 2. A in Life history traits of parental care in Crenicichla lepidota (Cichliformes, Geophagini) in the upper Paraguay River basin, Brazil
Figure 2. A couple of Crenicichla lepidota defence your offspring of a non-specific predators. (A) Both Crenicichla lepidota exhibit lateral threat display towards Serrasalmus maculatus; (B) Hyphessobrycon eques (indicated by arrow) approaches offspring(indicated by arrow bottom right) while parents are warding off another Crenicichla lepidota out of shot. (C) Male Crenicichla lepidota (indicated by arrow right) notices threat and charges Hyphessobrycon eques (indicated by arrow left). (D) Cichlasoma dimerus approaches offspring and adult of Crenicichla lepidota.
Figure 1. A in Life history traits of parental care in Crenicichla lepidota (Cichliformes, Geophagini) in the upper Paraguay River basin, Brazil
Figure 1. A couple of Crenicichla lepidota defence your offspring of a conspecific predator. (A) Pair of Crenicichla lepidota with offspring (indicated by arrow) over algae bed. (B) Conspecific aggressor (indicated by arrow) approaches, parents exhibit threat display. (C) Aggressor makes strike, parents continue threat display. (D) Aggressor strikes and is concealed in algae bed. Female (indicated by arrow) moves to prevent attack but fails.
Data from: Patterns of parental care in Neotropical glassfrogs: fieldwork alters hypotheses of sex-role evolution
Many animals provide parental care to offspring. Parental sex-roles vary extensively across taxa, and such patterns are considered well documented. However, information on amphibians is lacking relative to other vertebrate groups. We combine natural history observations with functional and historical analyses to examine the evolution of egg care in glassfrogs (Centrolenidae). Parental care was considered rare and predominately provided by males. Our field observations of 40 species revealed that care occurs throughout the family, and the caregiving sex changes across lineages. We discovered that a brief period of maternal care is widespread and occurs in species previously thought to lack care. Using a combination of female-removal experiments, prey-choice tests with egg-eating katydids, and parental disturbance-tolerance assays, we confirm the adaptive benefits of short-term maternal care in wild Cochranella granulosa and Teratohyla pulverata. To examine historical transitions between caregiving sexes, we assembled a molecular phylogeny and estimated ancestral care states using our data and the literature. We assessed patterns indicative of sex-specific constraints by testing whether transitions between the sexes are associated with changes in care levels. Our analyses support that male-only care evolved 2-3 times from female-only care, and this change is associated with substantial increases in care levels-a pattern supporting the hypothesis that male-only care evolved via constraints on maternal expenditure. Many groups of amphibians remain poorly studied, with emerging evidence indicating that care patterns are more diverse than currently appreciated. Natural history remains fundamental to uncovering this diversity and generating testable hypotheses of sex-role evolution.
Fig. 5 in Comparative Biology Of Cave-Dwelling Spitting Spiders (Araneae: Scytodidae): Parental Care, Cooperative Prey-Capture, Cannibalism, Natal Dispersal And Reproductive Behaviour
Fig. 5. Scytodes fusca female leaving her egg-sac aside to forage on the house fly.
Data from: Inability of recognizing offspring underlies parental errors in the selection of offspring
<p>Inclusive fitness theory is an important theoretical framework in demonstrating the evolution of social behaviors. However, in the scenario of caring for offspring, it is difficult for the inclusive fitness theory to demonstrate the errors parents made in offspring selection, either rejecting their own offspring (type I error) or accepting the offspring of others (type II error). To address why parents make errors in caring for offspring and the relationship between making errors and parental ability of offspring recognition, we designed a series of experiments in the azure-winged magpie (<em>Cyanopica cyanus</em>). By manipulating the nest spatial position or cross-fostering chicks, we examined parental care strategies for the manipulated offspring and tested whether offspring age and parent-offspring familiarity affected the occurrence of both errors. In the nest resettlement experiment, the probability of type I error significantly increased with nest-moving distances while decreased with offspring ages. In the cross-fostering experiments, the probability of type II error significantly decreased with the age difference between cross-fostered chicks. In the experiments of reselection between familiar offspring and unfamiliar unrelated chicks or between unfamiliar offspring and familiar cross-fostered chicks, the probability of both errors was closely related to the time when parents were deprived the association with their offspring. Given offspring phenotypic traits become individualized and fixed with their growth, it imposes an aging effect on parental ability of offspring recognition. Parental errors in offspring selection depend largely on the age of offspring when the environmental or offspring signals are manipulated.</p>
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