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Figure 3 in Impact of brood parasitoids and oophagy on survival of Asemonea tenuipes (Araneae: Salticidae: Asemoneinae) broods in Karnataka

Figure 3 (continued from previous page, continued on next page). 21, Mantispid near its empty cocoon and exuvium, also near the developing second brood. 22, About one week later the female Asemonea was gone but the third brood was developing normally. The emergent (instar II) spiderlings shown here most likely came from the second brood. 23, A female Asemonea, perhaps the original female, moved into the nest near the third brood. 24, Same female Asemonea feeding on a chironomid midge in her nest near the second brood. 25, Gravid female Asemonea near the third brood, now clearly infected with Idris sp. parasitoids. 26, Same female after depositing a fourth brood of 18 eggs near the infected third brood.

Figure 3 in Impact of brood parasitoids and oophagy on survival of Asemonea tenuipes (Araneae: Salticidae: Asemoneinae) broods in Karnataka

Figure 3 (continued from previous page, continued on next page). 7, Developing second brood (instar I) under the first leaf. 8, Female Asemonea with third brood under the second leaf (upper left) with cocoon that replaced the first brood and the developing second brood under the first leaf. 9-11,14, Cocoon and developing second brood. 12, Detail of small insect (Heteroptera) near the mantispid cocoon, from (10). 13, Female Asemonea attending her third brood of 10 eggs on the second leaf.

Figure 1 in Impact of brood parasitoids and oophagy on survival of Asemonea tenuipes (Araneae: Salticidae: Asemoneinae) broods in Karnataka

Figure 1 (continued from previous page). 8-9, The 9 instar I spiderlings continued to develop as the female returned to her original colour. 10-12, Still attended by the female, 7 remaining spiderlings molted to the emergent instar (instar II). 13, The female and all of her spiderlings were gone.

Figure 3 in Impact of brood parasitoids and oophagy on survival of Asemonea tenuipes (Araneae: Salticidae: Asemoneinae) broods in Karnataka

Figure 3 (continued on next page). 1-2, Female Asemonea tenuipes attending her nest including a mantispid cocoon and a normal brood of 19 eggs on the underside of a Ficus microcarpa leaf. 3-8, Eggs of the second brood of 19 eggs were hatching (3) as the female Asemonea tenuipes moved to a nearby leaf and deposited a new brood of 10 eggs (6).

Figure 2 in Impact of brood parasitoids and oophagy on survival of Asemonea tenuipes (Araneae: Salticidae: Asemoneinae) broods in Karnataka

Figure 2 (continued from previous page, continued on next page). 5-6, Neuropteran larva (possibly mantispid) feeding on eggs in the more recent or second brood. 7-10, The female Asemonea continued to attend to her nest, now inhabited by the cocooning neuropteran and 7 eggs that may have been damaged or infested by Idris.

Figure 1 in Impact of brood parasitoids and oophagy on survival of Asemonea tenuipes (Araneae: Salticidae: Asemoneinae) broods in Karnataka

Figure 1 (continued on next page). 1, Light green Female A. tenuipes tending her clutch of 9 eggs beneath a leaf of Ficus microcarpa. 2, 9 newly hatched spiderlings (instar I) with short legs. Note that the female was now darker. 3-7, The 9 instar I spiderlings continued to develop.

opencc-zeroOct 2022View details →

Brood parasitism risk drives birds to breed near humans

Although humans have generally negative effects on wildlife, some animals live in close proximity to human residences. Why some animals choose to settle near humans remains a long-standing puzzle. Settling near humans or in urban environments may be beneficial, because of the availability of resources such as food (e.g. supplemental feeding) or suitable nest sites (e.g. cavities), or because of reduced predation risk if predators avoid settlements. Here, we report on a study of Daurian redstarts Phoenicurus auroreus, a common host of the common cuckoo Cuculus canorus, to show that settling near humans can also be a strategy employed by hosts to avoid brood parasitism. First, redstarts suffered an increased risk of brood parasitism with increasing distance from the nearest building. Second, redstarts adjusted their nesting location in response to a seasonally predictable change in the risk of brood parasitism. Third, experimentally simulating the presence of cuckoos during a period when they are naturally absent increased the likelihood that redstarts nested indoors or closer to human settlements. These findings suggest that redstarts actively choose to place their nest in the vicinity of a human residence as a defense against cuckoos. Hence, settling near humans may be an anti-parasitism strategy in some avian hosts.

opencc-zeroMay 2024View details →

Data from: Molecular sibship reconstruction reveals a promiscuous mating system in brood parasitic little bronze-cuckoos (Chalcites minutillus)

In theory, emancipation from parental care is expected to favour promiscuous mating systems. However, in avian brood parasites monogamy is surprisingly widespread and it has been proposed that this may be favoured by factors such as low population density and territoriality. Correspondingly, our previous research revealed that brood parasitic Horsfield's bronze-cuckoos (Chalcites basalis), which occur at low population densities and defend territories, are monogamous. Here, we contrast this study with the mating system of the congeneric little bronze-cuckoo (C. minutillus), an obligate brood parasite that exploits more concentrated hosts and is therefore likely to occur at higher population densities. We use single nucleotide polymorphisms to characterise the reproductive patterns of unsampled adults by inferring sibling relationships among 30 offspring. We show that 1) little bronze-cuckoos occurred at high densities, 2) polygamy was the most common mating pattern found in this study in both sexes, and 3) where multiple cuckoo eggs are laid in the same nest, they were unrelated. These results indicate that females do not defend exclusive territories and males do not defend multiple females (polygyny). Instead, little bronze-cuckoos appear to have a non-territorial, promiscuous mating system. Our results are consistent with theoretical predictions that polygamy is more likely to evolve in species that are emancipated from parental care, where there are plenty of available mates and where home ranges are not defended.

opencc-zeroJul 2024View details →

No evidence of adaptive tolerance of parasitism in a cavity-nesting brood parasite host

Acceptance of avian brood parasitism by hosts is one of the most enigmatic aspects of brood parasite-host coevolution. The most common explanation for acceptance of parasitism by hosts of the brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) is evolutionary lag, which suggests that hosts have not had enough time to evolve defenses against parasitism. Alternatively, acceptance may be the optimal strategy when the costs of rejecting parasitism exceed the benefits. The lack of nest site hypothesis applies to secondary cavity-nesting birds that cannot excavate their own nests and predicts that hosts accept parasitism instead of deserting a parasitized nest when there are no vacant nest sites available in which to renest. I tested this hypothesis using the prothonotary warbler (Pronotaria citrea), a commonly parasitized, cavity-nesting cowbird host. I used a paired nest box design and predicted that if hosts accept parasitism because of a lack of alternative nest sites, they should desert parasitized nests and renest in the vacant nest box on their territory. I recorded 37 cases where a nest was parasitized and warblers only deserted 2 parasitized nest boxes for a vacant nest box. Both desertions were attributable to factors other than parasitism and the rate of desertion did not differ from controls that only had a single nest box. Moreover, seven of the warblers initiated clutches in nest boxes that already contained cowbird egg despite having vacant nest boxes available on their territories. These results indicate that warblers do not accept parasitism because of tolerance, but likely due to evolutionary lag.

opencc-zeroJun 2011View details →

Fig. 2. Bogidiella veneris n. sp. from Venus Bay, South Australia. A-C, holotype (3.6 mm female); E, H, paratype 1 (3.0 mm female); D, F, G, paratype 3 (3.1 mm female). A, head; B, epimera 1-3; C, coxal plates 1-7 (from left to right), with brood plates exemplarily shown on coxa 4, and gills on coxae 4 and 5; D, antenna 1, with arrows pointing at enlarged accessory flagellum (above) and aesthetasc (below); E, antenna 2; F, maxilla 1; G, enlarged serrate setae from outer plate of maxilla 1; H, maxilla 2. Scale bars: A-E 5 0.1 mm; F, H 5 0.1 mm.

Fig. 2. Bogidiella veneris n. sp. from Venus Bay, South Australia. A-C, holotype (3.6 mm female); E, H, paratype 1 (3.0 mm female); D, F, G, paratype 3 (3.1 mm female). A, head; B, epimera 1-3; C, coxal plates 1-7 (from left to right), with brood plates exemplarily shown on coxa 4, and gills on coxae 4 and 5; D, antenna 1, with arrows pointing at enlarged accessory flagellum (above) and aesthetasc (below); E, antenna 2; F, maxilla 1; G, enlarged serrate setae from outer plate of maxilla 1; H, maxilla 2. Scale bars: A-E 5 0.1 mm; F, H 5 0.1 mm.

Figure 2 in Leaf suspension by a brooding female Epeus indicus (Araneae: Salticidae: Plexippina) in Karnataka

Figure 2 (continued from previous page). Nesting female Epeus indicus. 25, Large Solanum macranthum tree at the Indraprastha Organic Farm where this sequence was observed. 26, Rear view of the suspended brood leaf, now completely dry. 27, Female on the suspended brood leaf. The two suspensors are indicated with white arrows. 28, The female with prey (Diptera: Nematocera) on a nearby leaf. 29, Female in nest. 30, First instar with partly developed eyes suspended from nest. 31, Female on rear or bottom of suspended brood leaf. 32, Female in nest. 33, Female with prey (Diptera: Nematocera) on the dried brood leaf. After this the female E. indicus was not seen again.

Figure 2 in Leaf suspension by a brooding female Epeus indicus (Araneae: Salticidae: Plexippina) in Karnataka

Figure 2 (continued from previous page, continued on next page). Nesting female Epeus indicus. 18, Drying brood leaf, now detached completely at the petiole, with two suspensors in place, one of ~3.5 cm length closer to the petiole or base of the leaf (as shown in earlier photographs), and another to the right joining the brood sac (black arrow) to a different green leaf. 19, 21-22, The developing brood was more mobile within the nest at this time. Note the white egg membranes. 20, Female (black arrow) below brood on leaf. Position of the longer suspensor is indicated with a white arrow. 23, Drying leaf, showing the two suspensors (arrows). 24, Detail of the second suspensor, on the end of the leaf surrounding the nest.

Figure 2 in Leaf suspension by a brooding female Epeus indicus (Araneae: Salticidae: Plexippina) in Karnataka

Figure 2 (continued from previous page, continued on next page). Nesting female Epeus indicus. 12, 14-15, Female at or near nest with brood on two successive days. 13, Female near suspensor (white arrow). 16-17, Female reinforcing the suspensor by adding more silk lines as she traversed it. A second, thin line connecting the two leaves was added near this one, but not subsequently observed.

Figure 2 in Leaf suspension by a brooding female Epeus indicus (Araneae: Salticidae: Plexippina) in Karnataka

Figure 2 (continued on next page). Nesting female Epeus indicus. 1-2, Female with 26 eggs deposited in a nest on the upper surface of a Solanum macranthum leaf. 3-4, Three days later, female with hatchling first instars, sometimes referred to as nymphs. Note the white remnant of each egg membrane, still attached to each nymph.

Figure 2 in Leaf suspension by a brooding female Epeus indicus (Araneae: Salticidae: Plexippina) in Karnataka

Figure 2 (continued from previous page, continued on next page). Nesting female Epeus indicus. 5-6, Female traversing a silk suspensor (bridge) from a position near the petiole (stem) of the yellowing brood leaf to a nearby green leaf, adding dragline silk to that suspensor with each traverse. The suspensor was about 3.5 cm in length. 7, View of the yellowing brood leaf, showing the female as she traversed the suspensor (white arrow at upper left), and the position of the nest (black arrow). 8-11, More images of the female adding silk lines to the suspensor.

Figure 1 in Leaf suspension by a brooding female Epeus indicus (Araneae: Salticidae: Plexippina) in Karnataka

Figure 1. Photographs of a female Epeus indicus in Karnataka. Photographs posted on iNaturalist © Harshith J. V., used under an Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license.

opencc-by-4.0May 2014View details →

Fig. 1 in Brooding behaviour of the centipede Otostigmus spinosus Porat, 1876 (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha: Scolopendridae) and its morphological variability in Thailand

Fig. 1. Distribution of Otostigmus spinosus Porat, 1876 in southern Thailand.

opencc-by-4.0May 2014View details →

Fig. 4 in Brooding behaviour of the centipede Otostigmus spinosus Porat, 1876 (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha: Scolopendridae) and its morphological variability in Thailand

Fig. 4. Schematic of brooding behaviour of Otostigmus spinosus.

opencc-zeroOct 2022View details →

Data from: Are brood sex ratios adaptive? The effect of experimentally altered brood sex ratio on nestling growth, mortality, and recruitment

Brood sex ratios (BSRs) have often been found to be non-random in respect of parental and environmental quality, and many hypotheses suggest that non-random sex ratios can be adaptive. To specifically test the adaptive value of biased BSRs, it is crucial to disentangle the consequences of BSR and maternal effects. In multiparous species, this requires cross-fostering experiments where foster parents rear offspring originating from multiple broods, and where the interactive effect of original and manipulated BSR on fitness components are tested. To our knowledge, our study on collared flycatchers (Ficedula albicollis) is the first that meets these requirements. In this species, where BSRs had previously been shown to be related to parental characteristics, we altered the original BSR of the parents shortly after hatching by cross-fostering nestlings among trios of broods, and examined the effects on growth, mortality, and recruitment of the nestlings. We found that original and experimental BSR, as well as the interaction of the two were unrelated to the fitness components considered. Nestling growth was related only to background variables, namely brood size and hatching rank. Nestling mortality was related only to hatching asynchrony. Our results therefore do not support that the observed BSRs are adaptive in our study population. However, we cannot exclude the possibility of direct effects of experimentally altered BSRs on parental fitness, which should be evaluated in the future. In addition, studies similar to ours are required on various species to get a clearer picture of the adaptive value of non-random BSRs.