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Fig. 12 in Ammonites from the Upper Part of the Pierre Shale and Fox Hills Formation of Colorado

Fig. 12. Sphenodiscus pleurisepta (Conrad, 1857). A–D. USNM 519506, Fox Hills Formation, 5 mi (8.0 km) west and 2.5 mi (4.0 km) north of Ault, Weld County, Colorado. A, Left lateral; B, apertural; C, ventral; D, right lateral. All figures are ×0.94.

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Fig. 19 in Ammonites from the Upper Part of the Pierre Shale and Fox Hills Formation of Colorado

Fig. 19. Hoploscaphites birkelundae Landman and Waage, 1993. A, B. USNM 519504, microconch, upper transition member of the Pierre Shale, NE¼, NW¼ sec. 30, T6N, R67W, Weld County, Colorado. A, Right lateral; B, apertural. C, D. USNM 519505, macroconch, same locality as A, B. C, Ventral; D, left lateral. E–H. YPM 35505, small macroconch, Fox Hills Formation, SW¼, NE¼ sec. 31, T6N, R58W, Morgan County, Colorado. E, Right lateral of latex peel; F, right lateral; G, apertural; H, left lateral. All figures are ×1.

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Fig. 14 in Ammonites from the Upper Part of the Pierre Shale and Fox Hills Formation of Colorado

Fig. 14. Sphenodiscus pleurisepta (Conrad, 1857). A–C. USNM 519510, top of Pierre Shale or lower Fox Hills Formation, SW¼, SE¼ sec. 35, T6N, R67W, Weld County, Colorado. A, Sketch of reconstructed specimen showing the location of the muscle scar; B, closeup of the muscle scar, ×1.5; C, sketch of the muscle scar shown in B, ×1.5.

FIGURE 8 in A trilobite cluster from the Silurian Rochester Shale of New York: predation patterns and possible defensive behavior

FIGURE 8. Plot of regressed PC coordinates against log-centroid size and histogram of maximum specimen length, coded for injured and noninjured specimens. A, Regressed PC coordinates against log-centroid size that shows no obvious pattern in injured and noninjured specimens, although many of the larger specimens are injured. B, Histogram of specimen length has an approximately normal distribution with the two largest specimens showing an injury.

FIGURE 1. Slab preserving a in A trilobite cluster from the Silurian Rochester Shale of New York: predation patterns and possible defensive behavior

FIGURE 1. Slab preserving a cluster of 18 fully articulated individuals of Arctinurus boltoni (AMNH- FI-101514–101531) from the mid-Silurian (Wenlock) Rochester Shale, New York state. Stars indicate injured specimens. Scale bar = 10 cm.

FIGURE 5 in A trilobite cluster from the Silurian Rochester Shale of New York: predation patterns and possible defensive behavior

FIGURE 5. Specimens of Arctinurus boltoni with injuries to the thorax (A, B) and with reconstruction that mimics an injury (C, D), under plain and UV light. Arrows point to injuries described in the text. Scale bar = 1 mm. A–B, AMNH-FI-101518. C–D, AMNH-FI-101516.

FIGURE 4 in A trilobite cluster from the Silurian Rochester Shale of New York: predation patterns and possible defensive behavior

FIGURE 4. Further specimens of Arctinurus boltoni with injuries to the pygidium, under plain and UV light. Arrows point to injuries described in the text. Scale bar = 1 mm. A–B, AMNH-FI-101529. C–D, AMNH- FI-101530. E–F, AMNH-FI-101531.

FIGURE 3 in A trilobite cluster from the Silurian Rochester Shale of New York: predation patterns and possible defensive behavior

FIGURE 3. Specimens of Arctinurus boltoni with injuries to the pygidium, under plain and UV light (with brighter areas indicating parts of reconstructed exoskeleton). Arrows point to injuries described in the text. Scale bar = 1 mm. A–B, AMNH-FI-101521. C–D, AMNH-FI-101527.

FIGURE 2 in A trilobite cluster from the Silurian Rochester Shale of New York: predation patterns and possible defensive behavior

FIGURE 2. Diagram of 12 landmarks selected to describe the overall shape of the exoskeleton of Arctinurus boltoni.

FIGURE 7 in A trilobite cluster from the Silurian Rochester Shale of New York: predation patterns and possible defensive behavior

FIGURE 7. Principal components analysis of landmark data, with 49.5% variance in the data explained by the first two PCs (PC1=29.7%, PC2=19.8%). PC1 describes the variation in the intersection of the occipital furrow and anterior-posterior axis and junction points between posterior margin of the 11th tergite. PC2 mostly describes variation in cephalic width.

FIGURE 6 in A trilobite cluster from the Silurian Rochester Shale of New York: predation patterns and possible defensive behavior

FIGURE 6. Arctinurus boltoni specimen AMNH-FI-101520 with injuries to the thorax and pygidium, under A, plain and B, UV light. Arrows point to injuries described in the text. Scale bar = 1 mm.

Figure 9 in A giant nektobenthic radiodont from the Burgess Shale and the significance of hurdiid carapace diversity

Figure 9. Boxplot of H-element sagittal lengths and widths (measured between the tips of the posterolateral processes) for Cambrian hurdiids. The numbers below boxes indicate number of sampled specimens. Silhouettes scaled to equal maximum relative size.

Figure 8 in A giant nektobenthic radiodont from the Burgess Shale and the significance of hurdiid carapace diversity

Figure 8. Evolution of radiodont H-element shape and feeding ecology. (a) Radiodont clade cut from a parsimony strict consensus tree optimized under implied weights (k = 3) with discrete characters describing carapace shape (D tree), colours (unrelated to those in figure 7) represent inferred feeding ecologies with parsimony ancestral states mapped over branches (red, macrophagous raptorial predator; green, suspension feeder; light blue, macrophagous sediment sifter; dark blue, microphagous sediment sifter; black, unknown; purple dot, root), numbers at nodes are symmetric resampling supports; (b) PCA phylomorphospace based on the same topology (excluding taxa for which shape is incompletely known), plotting RFTRA-aligned mean H-element shape for each species, with ancestral states estimated in TNT by optimizing the landmark configurations on a constrained topology, colours as in (a). (See electronic supplementary material for complete tree topology and results using alternative methods).

Figure 7 in A giant nektobenthic radiodont from the Burgess Shale and the significance of hurdiid carapace diversity

Figure 7. PCA of radiodont H-element shape based on landmark analysis. (a) Axes 1–2; (b) axes 2–3. Different species and morphs colour coded, deformation grids representing average shapes at the extrema of respective dashed axes, bar plot at the bottom left showing the per cent of variation explained by each axis.

Figure 6 in A giant nektobenthic radiodont from the Burgess Shale and the significance of hurdiid carapace diversity

Figure 6. Comparative morphology of Pahvantia hastata. (a–c), P. hastata KUMIP 314089; (a), the part showing distal ends of broken endites to the left of the gill blades; (b) part and counterpart superposed to show the nearly complete appendage partly overlying the gill blades, lower inset showing complete counterpart with carapace elements, upper inset showing a close-up of partial appendage and gills on counterpart; (c) counterpart superposed on line drawing of part; (d) appendage of Hurdia for comparison, ROMIP 59259; (e–h), disarticulated Hurdia assemblages, showing groups of connected gill blades associated with other body parts; (e,f), ROMIP 60031; (g,h), ROMIP 60041. Scale bars: (a–c) = 2 mm; (b); upper inset, 5 mm; lower inset, 10 mm; (d–h) = 10 mm. Ds, dorsal spine; Ot, Ottoia prolifica; PEn, peduncular endite, other abbreviations see figures 1 and 3. (a–c) Images courtesy Rudy Lerosey-Aubril.

Figure 3 in A giant nektobenthic radiodont from the Burgess Shale and the significance of hurdiid carapace diversity

Figure 3. Assemblage of Titanokorys gainesi gen. et sp. nov., holotype ROMIP 65415. (a) Overview of slab, with boxed regions indicating close-ups in other panels, note associated agnostids (Peronopsis cf. columbiensis) possibly feeding on the remains or encrusting biofilms [27]; (b,c) original obliquely preserved H-element, with arrows showing the direction of deformation and dashes indicating sagittal axis of symmetry (b) and hypothetical undeformed version (c) using distort mode in Adobe Photoshop version 21.2.2 (based on the length-width proportions of ROMIP 65168). (d) Close-up of P-element spine; (e) closeup of P-element showing ridges; (f) close-up of bands of gill lamellae; (g,h) appendages and oral cone photographed using different low-angle light orientations to emphasize different details; (i,j) overall view (i) and close-up (j) of the frontal appendage of Cambroraster falcatus, ROMIP 65084, showing comparatively shorter spiniform distal endites and shorter secondary spines on more proximal endites. (k) Line drawing of appendages and oral cone of T. gainesi (from g,h); (l–n) close-ups of frontal appendages using different low-angle light orientations (l, close-up of g; m, close-up of h). Bu; burrow; Gb, gill blade; Ig, individual gill filament; In, Indeterminate; Oc, oral cone; Pc, Peronopsis cf. columbiensis; Pd, peduncle (podomere 1); Pe, P-element; PoX, podomere no. X; Ps, P-element spine; other abbreviations see figures 1 and 2. Scale bars: (a–c) = 50 mm; (e,g–i,k–n) = 10 mm; (d,f,j) = 5 mm.

Figure 5 in A giant nektobenthic radiodont from the Burgess Shale and the significance of hurdiid carapace diversity

Figure 5. Reconstruction of Titanokorys gainesi gen. et sp. nov. (a) Dorsal view; (b) ventral view; (c) lateral view; (d) frontal view— white line represents the upper margin of the P-elements below the H-element. Reconstruction by Lars Fields (see electronic supplementary material, video file 1).

Figure 4. H in A giant nektobenthic radiodont from the Burgess Shale and the significance of hurdiid carapace diversity

Figure 4. H-elements of Titanokorys gainesi gen. et sp. nov. showing ornamentation. (a,b) Paratype ROMIP 65749; (a) overview, note associated ptychopariid trilobites; (b) close-up of boxed region from (a); (c,d) paratype ROMIP 65748; (c) overview photographed under low-angle light; (d) close-up of boxed region in (c) showing tuberculate margin. For abbreviations, figure 1. Scale bars = 10 mm.

Figure 2 in A giant nektobenthic radiodont from the Burgess Shale and the significance of hurdiid carapace diversity

Figure 2. Assemblage of Titanokorys gainesi gen. et sp. nov., paratype ROMIP 65741. (a) Overview of slab, showing close association of H-element and partial appendage with an assemblage of Cambroraster falcatus consisting of an H-element and pair of appendages; (b) detail of T. gainesi; (c) close-up of endites from frontal appendage; (d) close-up of endites from frontal appendage of C. falcatus; (e) close-up of anterior margin of H-element, showing ornamentation. Ap, anterolateral processes; EnX, endite no. X; He, H-element; He-C, H-element of C. falcatus; Fa, frontal appendage; Fa-C, frontal appendage of C. falcatus; Ri, ridges associated with a reticulated pattern; Sa, sagittal spine; Se, secondary spines on endites; Sp, spiniform distal endites; Ts, Terminal spine; Tu, tubercles. Scale bars, (a,b) = 20 mm; (c–e) = 5 mm.

Figure 1. H in A giant nektobenthic radiodont from the Burgess Shale and the significance of hurdiid carapace diversity

Figure 1. H-element of Titanokorys gainesi gen. et sp. nov., paratype ROMIP 65168. (a) Part; (b) counterpart; (c) close-up of ornamentation, photographed under low-angle light; (d), (e) close-ups of posterolateral margins. Ap, anterolateral processes; Bp bilobate axial posterior region; He, H-element; Lp, posterolateral processes; Mn, medial notch; On, ocular notch; Ri, ridges associated with a reticulated pattern; Sa, sagittal spine; Sl1,2, terminal (Sl1) and medial (Sl2) spines of posterolateral processes; Tu, tubercles; Vm, the ventrolateral margin of H-element. Scale bars: (a,b) = 20 mm; (c,d) = 5 mm.