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334 results for “temporal variation”
Quantifying temporal variation in dietary niche to reveal drivers of past population declines; stable isotope, harvest trends, and land use
<p><b>1.</b> Given the long and dynamic history of anthropogenic disturbances to ecosystems, it is difficult to determine the drivers of past population declines. These uncertainties dilute the efficacy of conservation efforts and might hinder species and ecosystem recovery.</p> <p><b>2.</b> Niche quantification can be a useful tool for understanding drivers of past population declines. Niche parameters reflect key resources used, providing insight into the conditions needed to achieve population stability. By reconstructing a population's niche position and space over a period of decline and comparing to historic baselines, shifts in the realized niche of a species can be assessed. Comparing shifts to historic information on resource availability and timing of declines can allow practitioners to identify probable drivers of species decline.</p> <p><span><b>3.</b> We demonstrated the utility of this technique by reconstructing parameters of isotopic dietary niche over a 130 year period and comparing isotopic niche reconstructions to land use and crop harvests during this same period via regression and Bayesian standard ellipsoid (SIBER) analyses. We use a formerly widespread but now endangered species, the eastern spotted skunk (<i>Spilogale putorius</i>), addressing the hypothesis that land use change and agricultural intensification led to a historical collapse of key dietary resources which correlates with population declines in this species. To help control for isotopic variability unrelated to population decline, we compare trends to those of a secure, but ecologically similar generalist mesocarnivore, the striped skunk (<i>Mephitis mephitis</i>), across the same spatiotemporal scale. </span></p> <p><b>4.</b> We present evidence that historic dietary changes occurred in spotted skunks in the early 1900s but not to the same degree in striped skunks. Changes in isotopic composition correspond with the temporal period of decline and are explained by concurrent changes in land use. These results support the hypothesis that loss of key dietary resources as a result of land use change and agricultural intensification played a significant role in population declines of spotted skunks in this region.</p>
Temporal and spatial variation in population structure among brooding sea stars in the genus Leptasterias
<p>Temporal genetic studies of low-dispersing organisms are rare. Marine invertebrates lacking a planktonic larval stage are expected to have lower dispersal, low gene flow, and a higher potential for local adaptation than organisms with planktonic dispersal. <i>Leptasterias</i> is a genus of brooding sea stars containing several cryptic species complexes. Population genetic methods were used to resolve patterns of fine-scale population structure in central California <i>Leptasterias</i> species using three loci from nuclear and mitochondrial genomes. Historic samples (collected between 1897 and 1998) were compared to contemporary samples (collected between 2008 and 2014) to delineate changes in species distributions in space and time. Phylogenetic analysis of contemporary samples confirmed the presence of a bay-localized clade and revealed an additional bay-localized and previously undescribed clade of <i>Leptasterias</i>. Analysis of contemporary and historic samples indicates two clades are experiencing a constriction in their southern range limit and suggests a decrease in clade-specific abundance at sites at which they were once prevalent. Historic sampling revealed a dramatically different distribution of diversity along the California coastline compared to contemporary sampling and illustrates the importance of temporal genetic sampling in phylogeographic studies. These samples were collected prior to significant impacts of Sea Star Wasting Disease (SSWD) and represent an in-depth analysis of genetic structure over 117 years prior to the SSWD-associated mass die-off of <i>Leptasterias</i>. </p>
Data from: 10 years of life in compost: temporal and spatial variation of North German C. elegans populations
The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is a central laboratory model system in almost all biological disciplines, yet its natural life history and population biology are largely unexplored. Such information is essential for in-depth understanding of the nematode's biology because its natural ecology provides the context, in which its traits and the underlying molecular mechanisms evolved. We characterized natural phenotypic and genetic variation among North German C. elegans isolates. We used the unique opportunity to compare samples collected 10 years apart from the same compost heap and additionally included recent samples for this and a second site, collected across a 1.5-year period. Our analysis revealed significant population genetic differentiation between locations, across the 10-year time period, but for only one location a trend across the shorter time frame. Significant variation was similarly found for phenotypic traits of likely importance in nature, such as choice behavior and population growth in the presence of pathogens or naturally associated bacteria. Phenotypic variation was significantly influenced by C. elegans genotype, time of isolation, and sampling site. The here studied C. elegans isolates may provide a valuable, genetically variable resource for future dissection of naturally relevant gene functions.
Data from: Temporal variations in the linkages between plants and flower visitors and the pollination success of Primula modesta along the snowmelt gradient
<p>Although pollination networks between plants and flower visitors are diverse and flexible, seed production of many plant species is restricted by pollen limitation. Obligate outcrossers often suffer from low pollinator activity or severe interspecific competition for pollinator acquisition among co-flowering species. This study focused on seasonal changes in plant–flower visitor linkages in an alpine ecosystem and examined whether and how this seasonality affected the seed-set of <em>Primula modesta</em>, a self-incompatible distylous herb having long-tubed flowers. First, we recorded the linkages between plants and flower visitors along the snowmelt gradient. Then, pollination experiment was conducted to estimate the degree of pollen limitation over the course of flowering season of <em>P. modesta</em>. Flower visitors were classified by their tongue length based on the morphological matching with <em>P. modesta</em> flowers. As the season progressed, plant–visitor linkages became more diverse and generalized, and the visitation frequency to <em>P. modesta</em> flowers increased. In the later part of the season, however, the seed set of <em>P. modesta</em> was significantly reduced due to severe pollen limitation, presumably because of increased competition for long-tongued pollinators among co-flowering species. The present study revealed that pollinator availability for specialist species may be restricted even when plant–visitor linkages are diverse and generalized as a whole. In the case of <em>P. modesta</em>, morphological matching and competition for pollinators might be the main factors explaining this discrepancy.</p>
Data from: Spatio-temporal variation of biotic and abiotic stress agents determines seedling survival in assisted oak regeneration
1. Mediterranean oak woodlands are currently undergoing considerable anthropogenic changes that globally threaten their long-term persistence. Restoration efforts via assisted regeneration depend on species traits and type of stress. However, how different sources of stress vary across space (microsites) and time (intra and inter-annual variation) for co-occurring oak species remains largely unknown. 2. We examined spatio-temporal variation of biotic (herbivory, seed predation) and abiotic (drought) stress agents to evaluate seedling survival across different regeneration microsites, and considering two climatically contrasting years. We used two co-occurring species of contrasting ecology and leaf traits in California oak woodlands: the deciduous Quercus lobata and the evergreen Q. agrifolia. 3. Most oak seedlings (98.8%) suffered from some type of stress. For both species, summer drought was the main cause of mortality, followed by rodent damage, ungulate browsing and insect damage. Rodents represented the predominant biotic stress, as all rodent-affected seedlings eventually died. Interactions among stress factors were nuanced: insect and ungulate-browsing stresses were greater during dry year, whereas rodent damage was similar in dry and average years. Intra-annually, rodent damage was the main stress agent in early spring, whereas water stress and ungulate-browsing were greater in late spring-early fall. Plant species traits were also determinant: overall, the evergreen species had greater survival probability than the deciduous one. 4. Across microsites, water stress showed higher occurrence in open grassland habitats, while rodent damage was prevalent under palatable shrubs and ungulate browsing under conspecific trees. Shrub and tree cover reduced damage attributed to water stress but increased rodent and ungulate damage, respectively. Interestingly, lower water stress but higher rodent damage was found further inside the shrub cover. 5. Synthesis and applications. Intra and inter-annual variation are critical determinants of stress type and intensity on oak recruitment. Spatial variation (microsite identity) is also informative to manipulate stress agent impact. We conclude that assisted regeneration should consider not only the predominance and lethality of each stress type and microsite, but also the interactions thereof and thus manipulate protective microsites accordingly.
Data from: Spatial and temporal patterns of neutral and adaptive genetic variation in the endangered African wild dog (Lycaon pictus)
Deciphering patterns of genetic variation within a species is essential for understanding population structure, local adaptation and differences in diversity between populations. Whilst neutrally evolving genetic markers can be used to elucidate demographic processes and genetic structure, they are not subject to selection and therefore are not informative about patterns of adaptive variation. As such, assessments of pertinent adaptive loci, such as the immunity genes of the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC), are increasingly being incorporated into genetic studies. In this study we combined neutral (microsatellite, mtDNA) and adaptive (MHC class II DLA-DRB1 locus) markers to elucidate the factors influencing patterns of genetic variation in the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus); an endangered canid that has suffered extensive declines in distribution and abundance. Our genetic analyses found all extant wild dog populations to be relatively small (Ne < 30). Furthermore, through coalescent modelling, we detected a genetic signature of a recent and substantial demographic decline, which correlates with human expansion, but contrasts with findings in some other African mammals. We found strong structure of wild dog populations, indicating the negative influence of extensive habitat fragmentation and loss of gene flow between habitat patches. Across populations we found that the spatial and temporal structure of microsatellite and MHC diversity were correlated, and strongly influenced by demographic stability and population size, indicating the effects of genetic drift in these small populations. Despite this correlation, we detected signatures of selection at the MHC, implying that selection has not been completely overwhelmed by genetic drift.
Data from: Temporal variation in plant-pollinator networks from seasonal tropical environments: higher specialization when resources are scarce
The temporal dynamics of plant phenology and pollinator abundance across seasons should influence the structure of plant-pollinator interaction networks. Nevertheless, such dynamics are seldom considered, especially for diverse tropical networks. Here, we evaluated the temporal variation of four plant-pollinator networks in two seasonal ecosystems in Central Brazil (Cerrado and Pantanal). Data were gathered on a monthly basis over one year for each network. We characterized seasonal and temporal shifts in plant-pollinator interactions, using temporally discrete networks. We predicted that the greater floral availability in the rainy season would allow for finer partitioning of the floral niche by the pollinators, i.e., higher specialization patterns as previously described across large spatial gradients. Contrary to these expectations, we found that dry season networks, although characterized by lower floral resource richness and abundance, showed higher levels of network-wide interaction partitioning (complementary specialization and modularity). For nestedness and species level indices, though, this between-seasons difference was not consistent. Reduced resource availability in the dry season may promote higher interspecific competition among pollinators leading to reduced niche overlap, thus explaining the increase in specialization. Importantly, we also show that targeted data collection during peak flowering generates higher estimates of network specialization. Hence, depending on the period of data collection, different structural values for the networks of interactions may be found. Synthesis: Our study suggests that networks of tropical environments have structural properties that vary according to seasons, which should be taken into account in the description of the complex systems of interactions between plants and their pollinators in these areas.
Data from: Spatial and temporal variation in hornbill densities in Namdapha Tiger Reserve, Arunachal Pradesh, north-east India
Asian hornbill populations are declining across their ranges because of hunting and deforestation. Five of the 32 Asian hornbill species occur in north-east India. However, vital information on their abundance from the region remains scanty. Understanding spatiotemporal variation in densities provides crucial information for formulating effective conservation strategies based on species-specific abundance patterns and population trends. We examined spatiotemporal variation in densities of four hornbill species in the Namdapha Tiger Reserve, a site identified as an important site for hornbill conservation in Asia. We collected data through variable-width line transect sampling (effort=842.1 km) in the non-breeding season from 2009-12 to estimate hornbill densities. We had 458 detections of four hornbill species. We have estimated White-throated Brown Hornbill densities (7.9 birds/km2) for the first time throughout its entire range. The mean Rufous-necked Hornbill densities (6.9 birds/km2) were higher than those reported elsewhere. Great (3.9 birds/km2) and Wreathed Hornbill (16.1 birds/km2) densities were comparable with other sites. The peak densities of all hornbill species in November-December are among the highest reported from Asia. Wreathed Hornbill densities showed temporal variation peaking in November-December (68 birds/km2) and drastically declining by March-April (1.3 birds/km2), indicating seasonal altitudinal movement to low-elevation areas outside the reserve during the breeding season. Our results underscored the spatial variation in hornbill distribution, with low densities of Great and the White-throated Brown hornbills in higher elevations. Our study demonstrates the global importance of Namdapha for hornbills, given its large area and high densities of four hornbill species.
Data from: Temporally isolated lineages of pink salmon reveal unique signatures of selection on distinct pools of standing genetic variation
A species' genetic diversity bears the marks of evolutionary processes that have occurred throughout its history. However, robust detection of selection in wild populations is difficult and often impeded by lack of replicate tests. Here, we investigate selection in pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) using genome scans coupled with inference from a haploid-assisted linkage map. Pink salmon have a strict 2-year semelparous life history which has resulted in temporally isolated (allochronic) lineages that remain sympatric through sharing of spawning habitats in alternate years. The lineages differ in a range of adaptive traits, suggesting different genetic backgrounds. We used genotyping by sequencing of haploids to generate a high-density linkage map with 7035 loci and screened an existing panel of 8036 loci for signatures of selection. The linkage map enabled identification of novel genomic regions displaying signatures of parallel selection shared between lineages. Furthermore, 24 loci demonstrated divergent selection and differences in genetic diversity between lineages, suggesting that adaptation in the 2 lineages has arisen from different pools of standing genetic variation. Findings have implications for understanding asynchronous population abundances as well as predicting future ecosystem impacts from lineage-specific responses to climate change.
Data from: Impacts of bioturbation on temporal variation in bacterial and archaeal nitrogen-cycling gene abundance in coastal sediments
In marine environments, macrofauna living in or on the sediment surface may alter the structure, diversity and function of benthic microbial communities. In particular, microbial nitrogen (N)-cycling processes may be enhanced by the activity of large bioturbating organisms. Here, we study the effect of the burrowing mud shrimp Upogebia deltaura upon temporal variation in the abundance of genes representing key N-cycling functional guilds. The abundance of bacterial genes representing different N-cycling guilds displayed different temporal patterns in burrow sediments in comparison with surface sediments, suggesting that the burrow provides a unique environment where bacterial gene abundances are influenced directly by macrofaunal activity. In contrast, the abundances of archaeal ammonia oxidizers varied temporally but were not affected by bioturbation, indicating differential responses between bacterial and archaeal ammonia oxidizers to environmental physicochemical controls. This study highlights the importance of bioturbation as a control over temporal variation in nitrogen-cycling microbial community dynamics within coastal sediments.
Data from: ENSO and frost co-determine decade-long temporal variation in flower and seed production in a subtropical rain forest
Flower and seed production of plants can be greatly influenced by both natural climatic oscillations and local weather extremes. However, owing to the rarity of long-term monitoring studies conducted at a sufficient temporal scale to capture climatic oscillations and the unpredictability of extreme weather events, evidence that demonstrates how these two external forcings act in concert to drive plant reproduction remains scarce. In addition, considerable variation in species' phenological responses to the external climatic forcings was often observed. Phylogenetic relationships may mediate this inter-specific variation, but previous studies yielded inconsistent results when testing this hypothesis. We monitored the flower and seed production in a subtropical rainforest, Fushan, Taiwan (24°45'N, 121°35'E), for over ten years (since September 2002). In March 2005, a record low temperature (-1.3°C) occurred at Fushan and caused great frost damage to plants. We used weekly phenological records and long-term meteorological data to assess the effects of climatic fluctuations and extreme weather event on plant reproductive output. We show that the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) indices, which integrated local climatic variables at Fushan over several months, were strongly associated with flower and seed production. The 2005 spring frost also had long-lasting effects on the flower and seed production of several species. In particular, we detected phylogenetic signals in the relationships between phenological responses of flowering production and several climatic variables (maximum temperature, irradiance, and ENSO34 index). By contrast, the relationships between seed production and climatic variables, as well as phenological responses to the frost event, did not exhibit a phylogenetic signal. Synthesis: Our findings add to the growing evidence that together the natural climatic oscillation (ENSO) and the extreme weather event (frost) determined the temporal variation in flower and seed production. In addition, phylogenetically closely related species resembled each other in their flowering responses to abiotic variation in this subtropical rainforest. Improved understanding of these abiotic and biotic interactions may help predicting population- and community-level phenological responses under future climate changes.
Data from: Relationships between spatio-temporal environmental and genetic variation reveal an important influence of exogenous selection in a pupfish hybrid zone
The importance of exogenous selection in a natural hybrid zone between the pupfishes Cyprinodon atrorus and C. bifasciatus was tested via spatio-temporal analyses of environmental and genetic change over winter, spring, and summer for three consecutive years. A critical influence of exogenous selection on hybrid zone regulation was demonstrated by a significant relationship between environmental (salinity and temperature) and genetic (three diagnostic nuDNA loci) variation over space and time (seasons) in the Rio Churince system, Cuatro Ciénegas, Mexico. At sites environmentally more similar to parental habitats, the genetic composition of hybrids was stable and similar to the resident parental species, whereas complex admixtures of parental and hybrid genotypic classes characterized intermediate environments, as did the greatest change in allelic and genotypic frequencies across seasons. Within hybrids across the entire Rio Churince system, seasonal changes in allelic and genotypic frequencies were consistent with results from previous reciprocal transplant experiments, which showed C. bifasciatus to suffer high mortality (75%) when exposed to the habitat of C. atrorus in winter (extreme temperature lows and variability) and summer (abrupt salinity change and extreme temperature lows and variability). Though unconfirmed, the distributional limits of C. atrorus and C. atrorus-like hybrids appear to be governed by similar constraints (predation or competition). A crucial link was also established between contemporary exogenous selection in a hybrid zone between these species and previous demonstration of long-term evolutionary significance of environmental variation and introgression on the phenotypic diversification Cuatro Ciénegas Cyprinodon.
Data from: Spatio-temporal variation in fitness responses to contrasting environments in Arabidopsis thaliana
The evolutionary response of organisms to global climate change is expected to be strongly conditioned by pre-existing standing genetic variation. In addition, natural selection imposed by global climate change on fitness-related traits can be heterogeneous over time. We estimated selection of life-history traits of an entire genetic lineage of the plant A. thaliana occurring in north-western Iberian Peninsula that were transplanted over multiple years into two environmentally contrasting field sites in southern Spain, as southern environments are expected to move progressively northwards with climate change in the Iberian Peninsula. The results indicated that natural selection on flowering time prevailed over that on recruitment. Selection favored early flowering in six of eight experiments and late flowering in the other two. Such heterogeneity of selection for flowering time might be a powerful mechanism for maintaining genetic diversity in the long run. We also found that north-western A. thaliana accessions from warmer environments exhibited higher fitness and higher phenotypic plasticity for flowering time in southern experimental facilities. Overall, our transplant experiments suggested that north-western Iberian A. thaliana has the means to cope with increasingly warmer environments in the region as predicted by trends in global climate change models.
Data from: Spatial variation buffers temporal fluctuations in early juvenile survival for an endangered Pacific salmon
1. Spatial, phenotypic, and genetic diversity at relatively small scales can buffer species against large-scale processes such as climate change that tend to synchronize populations and increase temporal variability in overall abundance or production. This portfolio effect generally results in improved biological and economic outcomes for managed species. Previous evidence for the portfolio effect in salmonids has arisen from examinations of time series of adult abundance, but we lack evidence of spatial buffering of temporal variability in demographic rates such as survival of juveniles during their first year of life. 2. We therefore use density-dependent population models with multiple random effects to represent synchronous (similar among populations) and asynchronous (different among populations) temporal variability as well as spatial variability in survival. These are fitted to 25 years of survey data for breeding adults and surviving juveniles from 15 demographically distinct populations of Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) within a single metapopulation in the Snake River in Idaho, USA. 3. Model selection identifies the most support for the model that included both synchronous and asynchronous temporal variability, in addition to spatial variability. Asynchronous variability (log-SD = 0.55) is approximately equal in magnitude to synchronous temporal variability (log-SD = 0.67), but much lower than spatial variability (log-SD = 1.11). We also show that the pairwise correlation coefficient, a common measure of population synchrony, is approximated by the estimated ratio of shared and total variance, where both approaches yield a synchrony estimate of 0.59. We therefore find evidence for spatial buffering of temporal variability in early juvenile survival, although between-population variability that persists over time is also large. 4. We conclude that spatial variability decreases interannual changes in overall juvenile production, which suggests that conservation and restoration of spatial diversity will improve population persistence for this metapopulation. However, the exact magnitude of spatial buffering depends upon demographic parameters such as adult survival that may vary among populations, and is proposed as an area of future research using hierarchical life cycle models. We recommend that future sampling of this metapopulation employ a repeated-measure sampling design to improve estimation of early juvenile carrying capacity.
Data from: Temporal patterns of genetic variation in a salmon population undergoing rapid change in migration timing
Though genetic diversity is necessary for population persistence in rapidly changing environments, little is known about how climate-warming influences patterns of intra-population genetic variation. For a pink salmon population experiencing increasing temperatures, we used temporal genetic data (microsatellite = 1993, 2001, 2009; allozyme = 1979, 1981, 1983) to quantify the genetic effective population size (Ne) and genetic divergence due to differences in migration timing and to estimate whether these quantities have changed over time. We predicted that temporal trends toward earlier migration timing and a corresponding loss of phenotypic variation would decrease genetic divergence based on migration timing and Ne. We observed significant genetic divergence based on migration timing and genetic heterogeneity between early- and late-migrating fish. There was also some evidence for divergent selection between early- and late-migrating fish at circadian rhythm genes, but results varied over time. Estimates of Ne from multiple methods were large (>1200) and Ne/Nc generally exceeded 0.2. Despite shifts in migration timing and loss of phenotypic variation, there was no evidence for changes in within-population genetic divergence or Ne over the course of this study. These results suggest that in instances of population stability, genetic diversity may be resistant to climate-induced changes in migration timing.
Data from: Temporal variation of Bistorta vivipara-associated ectomycorrhizal fungal communities in the High Arctic
Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi are important for efficient nutrient uptake of several widespread arctic plant species. Knowledge of temporal variation of ECM fungi, and the relationship of these patterns to environmental variables, is essential to understand energy and nutrient cycling in Arctic ecosystems. We sampled roots of Bistorta vivipara ten times over two years; three times during the growing-season (June, July and September) and twice during winter (November and April) of both years. We found 668 ECM OTUs belonging to 25 different ECM lineages, whereof 157 OTUs persisted throughout all sampling time-points. Overall, ECM fungal richness peaked in winter and species belonging to Cortinarius, Serendipita and Sebacina were more frequent in winter than during summer. Structure of ECM fungal communities was primarily affected by spatial factors. However, after accounting for spatial effects, significant seasonal variation was evident revealing correspondence with seasonal changes in environmental conditions. We demonstrate that arctic ECM richness and community structure differ between summer (growing-season) and winter, possibly due to reduced activity of the core community, and addition of fungi adapted for winter conditions forming a winter-active fungal community. Significant month × year interactions were observed both for fungal richness and community composition, indicating unpredictable between-year variation. Our study indicates that addressing seasonal changes requires replication over several years.
Data from: Hidden diversity in diatoms of Kenyan Lake Naivasha: a genetic approach detects temporal variation
This study provides insights into the morphological and genetic diversity in diatoms occurring in core sediments from tropical lakes in Kenya. We developed a genetic survey technique specific for diatoms utilizing a short region (76-67 bp) of the ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase large subunit (rbcL) gene as genetic barcode. Our analyses (i) validated the use of rbcL as a barcoding marker for diatoms, applied to sediment samples, (ii) showed a significant correlation between the results obtained by morphological and molecular data and (iii) indicated temporal variation in diatom assemblages on the inter- and intra-specific level. Diatom assemblages from a short core from Lake Naivasha show a drastic shift over the last 200 years, as littoral species (e.g. Navicula) are replaced by more planktonic ones (e.g. Aulacoseira). Within that same period, we detected periodic changes in the respective frequencies of distinct haplotype groups of Navicula, which coincide with wet and dry periods of Lake Naivasha between 1820 and 1938 AD. Our genetic analyses on historical lake sediments revealed inter- and intra-specific variation in diatoms, which is partially hidden behind single morphotypes. The occurrence of particular genetic lineages is probably correlated to environmental factors.
Data from: Spatial and temporal variation in grazing damage by the gastropod Lacuna vincta in Nova Scotian kelp beds
Population increases of the gastropod Lacuna vincta have been associated with significant damage to kelp blades and decreases in kelp biomass in subtidal kelp beds off Nova Scotia, Canada. We measured the total level and along-blade distribution of grazing damage by Lacuna vincta on the dominant kelp species at 5 sites in Nova Scotia, Canada, over a 15 mo period. Grazing was typically low or absent in the basal regions of blades, consistent with seasonal fluctuations in growth and physical properties of blade tissues. Grazing was largely concentrated in middle and distal sections, although this distribution varied with site exposure and over time. The cover of the invasive bryozoan Membranipora membranacea on the surface of kelp blades did not have a strong effect on grazing by L. vincta. The total level of grazing damage (max. 1% of blade area for Saccharina longicruris and 1.5% for Laminaria digitata) varied seasonally, with peaks in September at some sites. Spatial variation was driven in part by a negative relationship with site exposure. In a field experiment, simulated grazing damage that exceeded a threshold value of 0.5 to 1.0% of blade area caused a significant increase in blade loss during a period of heavy wave action due to a passing hurricane. Our results show that direct reductions in kelp biomass through grazing by L. vincta are relatively small, but can indirectly lead to significant losses of kelp biomass during large wave events.
Figure 4 in Temporal and seasonal variations in parasites of Metynnis lippincottianus (Characiformes: Characidae), a host from the eastern Amazon (Brazil)
Figure 4. Species richness of parasites in Metynnis lippincottianus from the eastern Amazon (Brazil), during the rainy and dry seasons.
Figure 3 in Temporal and seasonal variations in parasites of Metynnis lippincottianus (Characiformes: Characidae), a host from the eastern Amazon (Brazil)
Figure 3. Species richness of parasites in Metynnis lippincottianus from the eastern Amazon (Brazil), during 2 years.
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Allen Brain Atlas
Allen Brain Atlas is an Allen Institute collection of brain map atlases, datasets, APIs, and analysis tools covering mouse, human, and non-human primate brain resources.
Annotated Behaviour and Observability Dataset (ABODe)
ABODe is a University of Edinburgh DataShare dataset for behavior classification in group-housed mice using home-cage video, identities, bounding boxes, ground-plate positions, and annotator labels.
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