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2,390 results for “butterflies”
Figures 1-9 from: Hsu Y-F (2020) The identity of Alfred Wallace's mysterious butterfly taxon Lycaena nisa solved: Famegana nisa comb. nov., a senior synonym of F. alsulus (Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae, Polyommatinae). ZooKeys 966: 153-162. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.966.51921
Figures 1-9 Type specimens of Famegana nisa (Wallace, 1866) 1–3 lectotype of Lycaena nisa Wallace, 1866 4–6 holotype of Lycaena taiwana Sonan, 1938 7–9 holotype of Zizeeria alsulus eggletoni Corbet, 1941. Scale bar: 0.5 cm.
Figures 10-17 from: Hsu Y-F (2020) The identity of Alfred Wallace's mysterious butterfly taxon Lycaena nisa solved: Famegana nisa comb. nov., a senior synonym of F. alsulus (Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae, Polyommatinae). ZooKeys 966: 153-162. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.966.51921
Figures 10-17 Specimens of Famegana nisa (Wallace, 1866) 10, 11 male, Queensland, Cairns 12, 13 female, Queensland, Mt. Stuart 14, 15 male. Hong Kong, Yuen Long District, Shek Wu Wai 16, 17 female, Hong Kong, Ching Mun CP, Tai Mo Shan. Scale bar: 0.5 cm.
Cambridge butterfly wing collection - Patricio Salazar PhD wild specimens batch 3
<p>EN:</p> <p>This upload contains photographs taken by Gabriela Montejo-Kovacevich and a visiting school student in the Butterfly Genetics Group at the University of Cambridge from the 9h July 2019 (student) and the 2nd September 2020 (GMK). </p> <p>This batch contains Patricio Salazar's wild specimen collection. The wild specimens are from mostly across the H. m. plesseni/malleti and H. e. notabilits/lativitta hybrid zones in the Eastern slope of the Andes collected in 2009 - 2011. </p> <p>These individuals have been whole-genome sequenced (haplotyping) and published in Meier, Salazar, Kucka, Chan, et al (2020)<br> <br> Images across the two batches here differ in background colours. They have a white reflectance standard for calibration. Information on the individual IDs can additionally be found in the csv.</p> <p>Nomenclature</p> <p>CAMXXXXXX : unit ID corresponding to individual samples<br> _v _d: ventral or dorsal<br> </p> <p>Information on individual samples from the Butterfly Genetics Group Collection can be found on the public database Earthcape (click <a href="https://heliconius.ecdb.io/#ViewID=ContentPage_DetailView&ObjectKey=843e8ec1-41a6-4706-9622-f643132da859&ObjectClassName=EarthCape.Module.Core.ContentPage&mode=View">here</a> for the database, and <a href="http://heliconius.zoo.cam.ac.uk/databases/earthcape-specimen-database/">here</a> for FAQ)</p> <p>Please contact Chris Jiggins (c.jiggins[at]zoo.cam.ac.uk) or Ian Warren (iaw22[at]cam.ac.uk) for requests.</p> <p> </p> <p>------------------------------------------------------</p> <p>ES:</p> <p>Este repositorio contiene fotografías tomadas en el Butterfly Genetics Group de la Universidad de Cambridge</p> <p>Este lote contiene la colección de especímenes silvestres colectados por Patricio Salazar. Los especímenes silvestres son principalmente de la zona híbrida y alrededores de H. m. plesseni / malleti y H. e. notabilits / lativitta en la vertiente oriental de los Andes recogidas en 2009 - 2011. </p> <p>Nomenclatura</p> <p>CAMXXXXXX: ID de unidad correspondiente a muestras individuales<br> _v _d: ventral o dorsal<br> </p> <p>Puede encontrar información sobre muestras individuales de Butterfly Genetics Group Collection en la base de datos pública Earthcape (haga clic <a href="https://heliconius.ecdb.io/#ViewID=ContentPage_DetailView&ObjectKey=843e8ec1-41a6-4706-9622-f643132da859&ObjectClassName=EarthCape.Module.Core.ContentPage&mode=View">aquí</a> para la base de datos, y <a href="http://heliconius.zoo.cam.ac.uk/databases/earthcape-specimen-database/">aquí</a> para preguntas frecuentes)</p> <p>Por favor, póngase en contacto con Chris Jiggins (c.jiggins [arroba] zoo.cam.ac.uk) o Ian Warren (iaw22 [arroba] cam.ac.uk) con sus preguntas o peticiones.</p>
Butterfly phenology in Mediterranean mountains using space-for-time substitution
<p>Inferring species' responses to climate change in the absence of long-term time series data is a challenge, but can be achieved by substituting space for time. For example, thermal elevational gradients represent suitable proxies to study phenological responses to warming. We used butterfly data from two Mediterranean mountain areas to test whether mean dates of appearance of communities and individual species show a delay with increasing altitude, and an accompanying shortening in the duration of flight periods. We found a 14-day delay in the mean date of appearance per kilometre increase in altitude for butterfly communities overall, and an average 23-day shift for 26 selected species, alongside average summer temperature lapse rates of 3°C per km. At higher elevations there was a shortening of the flight period for the community of three days/km, with an 8.8 day average decline per km for individual species. Rates of phenological delay differed significantly between the two mountain ranges, although this did not seem to result from the respective temperature lapse rates. These results suggest that climate warming could lead to advanced and lengthened flight periods for Mediterranean mountain butterfly communities. However, although multivoltine species showed the expected response of delayed and shortened flight periods at higher elevations, univoltine species showed more pronounced patterns in terms of species appearance. Hence, whilst projections of overall community responses to climate change may benefit from space-for-time substitutions, understanding species-specific responses to local features of habitat and climate may be needed to accurately predict the effects of climate change on phenology.</p>
Butterfly Dataset
<p>The microstructure of the butterfly sample under the microscope. The microstructure of butterfly wings has many lattice and grid-like structures. <strong>We selected a part of the dataset we made, including 150 training pictures and 50 test pictures. We publish it so that everyone can conduct related scientific research.</strong></p>
Data from: Speciation with gene flow: evidence from a complex of alpine butterflies (Coenonympha, Satyridae)
Until complete reproductive isolation is achieved, the extent of differentiation between two diverging lineages is the result of a dynamic equilibrium between genetic isolation and mixing. This is especially true for hybrid taxa, for which the degree of isolation in regard to their parental species is decisive in their capacity to rise as a new and stable entity. In this work, we explored the past and current patterns of hybridization and divergence within a complex of closely related butterflies in the genus Coenonympha in which two alpine species, C. darwiniana and C. macromma, have been shown to result from hybridization between the also alpine C. gardetta and the lowland C. arcania. By testing alternative scenarios of divergence among species, we show that gene flow has been uninterrupted throughout the speciation process, although leading to different degrees of current genetic isolation between species in contact zones depending on the pair considered. Nonetheless, at broader geographic scale, analyses reveal a clear genetic differentiation between hybrid lineages and their parental species, pointing out to an advanced stage of the hybrid speciation process. Finally, the positive correlation observed between ecological divergence and genetic isolation among these butterflies suggests a potential role for ecological drivers during their speciation processes.
Data from: Experience-dependent mushroom body plasticity in butterflies: consequences of search complexity and host range
An ovipositing insect experiences many sensory challenges during her search for a suitable host plant. These sensory challenges become exceedingly pronounced when host range increases, as larger varieties of sensory inputs have to be perceived and processed in the brain. Neural capacities can be exceeded upon information overload, inflicting costs on oviposition accuracy. One presumed generalist strategy to diminish information overload is the acquisition of a focused search during its lifetime based on experiences within the current environment, a strategy opposed to a more genetically determined focus expected to be seen in relative specialists. We hypothesized that a broader host range is positively correlated with mushroom body (MB) plasticity, a brain structure related to learning and memory. To test this hypothesis, butterflies with diverging host ranges (Polygonia c-album, Aglais io and Aglais urticae) were subjected to differential environmental complexities for oviposition, after which ontogenetic MB calyx volume differences were compared among species. We found that the relative generalist species exhibited remarkable plasticity in ontogenetic MB volumes; MB growth was differentially stimulated based on the complexity of the experienced environment. For relative specialists, MB volume was more canalized. All in all, this study strongly suggests an impact of host range on brain plasticity in Nymphalid butterflies.
Data from: High male density favors maintenance over reproduction in a butterfly
Environmental factors exert strong effects on phenotypic expression. A particularly intriguing factor capable of inducing such plastic responses is the social environment experienced by a specific individual. Such social effects may alter the fitness of focal individuals if they affect the expression of reproductive traits and thus life-history strategies. To examine this question, we investigated the effects of individual density on morphology, reproduction, and behavior of male Bicyclus anynana butterflies. Increasing density significantly increased male body mass and the probability to succeed in aggressive interactions, and tended to increase abdomen fat content. At the same time, increasing density significantly decreased courtship activity and tended to decrease sperm number. These results suggest that individual density seemed to induce differential strategic investment into survival and somatic maintenance versus reproduction in male butterflies. Males kept at high densities apparently favored high body mass and storage, which may enable longer survival during times of intense intra-specific competition. Moreover, their competitiveness was enhanced as suggested by a higher success in aggressive interactions. Males kept at low density, in contrast, favored reproduction through increased courtship activity and sperm production. Our study illustrates that the effects of density on the expression of morphological and behavioral traits are complex and difficult to predict, owing to resource-allocation trade-offs resulting in prudent strategic investment.
Data from: The stable isotope ecology of mycalesine butterflies: implications for plant-insect co-evolution
One of the most dramatic examples of biome shifts in the geological record is the rapid replacement of C3 vegetation by C4 grasses in (sub-) tropical regions during the Late Miocene–Pliocene. Climate-driven biome shifts of this magnitude are expected to have a major impact on diversification and ecological speciation, especially in grazing taxa. Mycalesine butterflies are excellent candidates to explore the evolutionary impact of these C3/C4 shifts on insect grazer communities. Mycalesine butterflies feed on grasses as larvae, have radiated spectacularly and occur in almost all extant habitats across the Old World tropics. However, at present, we lack a comprehensive understanding of the larval ecology of these butterflies and this hampers investigations of co-evolutionary patterns among the geographically parallel radiations of mycalesine butterflies and the remarkable evolutionary history of their host plants. By conducting several experiments under defined environmental conditions, we demonstrate that the feeding history of mycalesine larvae on C3 and C4 grasses can be traced by analysing δ13C in the organic material of the adult exoskeleton, while values of δ18O in the adult reflect atmospheric humidity during larval development. To show the power of these isotopic proxies for ecological studies, we analysed the isotopic composition of organic material obtained from adult butterflies sampled in two extensive longitudinal surveys. We observed strong associations among the larval ecology, habitat preferences of the adult butterflies and patterns of seasonality, such that mycalesine species that inhabit open environments are more opportunistic in their host plant choice but utilize C3 grasses more frequently during the dry season. Crucially, the ability to process the less palatable C4 grasses appears to be phylogenetically clustered within mycalesine species, suggesting that novel feeding adaptations may have evolved in response to the ecological dominance of C4 grasses in open savanna habitats.
Data from: Effects of inbreeding and temperature stress on life history and immune function in a butterfly
Theory predicts that inbreeding depression should be more pronounced under environmental stress due to an increase in the expression of recessive deleterious alleles. If so, inbred populations may be especially vulnerable to environmental change. Against this background we here investigate effects of inbreeding, temperature stress and its interactions with inbreeding in the tropical butterfly Bicyclus anynana. We use a full-factorial design with three levels of inbreeding (F = 0 / 0.25 / 0.38) and three temperature treatments (2 h exposure to 1, 27 or 39°C). Despite using relatively low levels of inbreeding significant inbreeding depression was found in pupal mass, pupal time, thorax mass, abdomen fat content, egg hatching success, and fecundity. However, stress resistance traits (heat tolerance, immune function) were not affected by inbreeding and interactions with temperature treatments were virtually absent. We thus found no support for an increased sensitivity of inbred individuals to environmental stress, and suspect that such patterns are restricted to harsher conditions. Our temperature treatments evidently imposed stress, significantly reducing longevity, fecundity, egg hatching success, and haemocyte numbers, while fat content, protein content, and lysozyme activity remained unaffected. Males and females differed in all traits measured except pupal time and phenoloxidase activity. Correlation analyses revealed, amongst others, a trade-off between phenoloxidase and lysozyme activity, and negative correlations between fat content and several other traits. We stress that more data are needed on the effects of inbreeding, temperature variation, and sexual differences on insect immune function before more general conclusions can be drawn.
Data from: Evolution of a butterfly dispersal syndrome
The existence of dispersal syndromes contrasting disperser from resident phenotypes within populations has been intensively documented across taxa. However, how such suites of phenotypic traits emerge and are maintained is largely unknown, although deciphering the processes shaping the evolution of dispersal phenotypes is a key in ecology and evolution. In this study, we created artificial populations of a butterfly, in which we controlled for individual phenotypes and measured experimentally the roles of selection and genetic constraints on the correlations between dispersal-related traits: flight performance and wing morphology. We demonstrate that (i) trait covariations are not due to genetic correlations, (ii) the effects of selection are sex-specific, and (iii) both divergent and stabilizing selection maintain specific flight performance phenotypes and wing morphologies. Interestingly, some trait combinations are also favoured, depending on sex and fitness components. Moreover, we provide evidence for the role of (dis)assortative mating in the evolution of these dispersal-related traits. Our results suggest that dispersal syndromes may have high evolutionary potential, but also that they may be easily disrupted under particular environmental conditions.
Data from: Effects of temperature and drought on early life stages in three species of butterflies: mortality of early life stages as a key determinant of vulnerability to climate change?
Anthropogenic climate change poses substantial challenges to biodiversity conservation. Well-documented responses include phenological and range shifts, and declines in cold but increases in warm-adapted species. Thus, some species will suffer while others will benefit from ongoing change, although the biological features determining the prospects of a given species under climate change are largely unknown. By comparing three related butterfly species of different vulnerability to climate change, we show that stress tolerance during early development may be of key importance. The arguably most vulnerable species showed the strongest decline in egg hatching success under heat and desiccation stress, and similar pattern also for hatchling mortality. Research, especially on insects, is often focussed on the adult stage only. Thus, collating more data on stress tolerance in different life stages will be of crucial importance for enhancing our abilities to predict the fate of particular species and populations under ongoing climate change.
Data from: Mechanisms of macroevolution: polyphagous plasticity in butterfly larvae revealed by RNA-Seq
Transcriptome studies of insect herbivory are still rare, yet studies in model systems have uncovered patterns of transcript regulation that appear to provide insights into how insect herbivores attain polyphagy, such as a general increase in expression breadth and regulation of ribosomal, digestion- and detoxification-related genes. We investigated the potential generality of these emerging patterns, in the Swedish comma, Polygonia c-album, which is a polyphagous, widely-distributed butterfly. Urtica dioica and Ribes uva-crispa are hosts of P. c-album, but Ribes represents a recent evolutionary shift onto a very divergent host. Utilizing the assembled transcriptome for read mapping, we assessed gene expression finding that caterpillar life-history (i.e. 2nd vs. 4th-instar regulation) had a limited influence on gene expression plasticity. In contrast, differential expression in response to host-plant identified genes encoding serine-type endopeptidases, membrane-associated proteins and transporters. Differential regulation of genes involved in nucleic acid binding was also observed suggesting that polyphagy involves large scale transcriptional changes. Additionally, transcripts coding for structural constituents of the cuticle were differentially expressed in caterpillars in response to their diet indicating that the insect cuticle may be a target for plant defence. Our results state that emerging patterns of transcript regulation from model species appear relevant in species when placed in an evolutionary context.
Data from: Climatic niche evolution is faster in sympatric than allopatric lineages of the butterfly genus Pyrgus
Understanding how speciation relates to ecological divergence has long fascinated biologists. It is assumed that ecological divergence is essential to sympatric speciation, as a mechanism to avoid competition and eventually lead to reproductive isolation, while divergence in allopatry is not necessarily associated with niche differentiation. The impact of the spatial context of divergence on the evolutionary rates of abiotic dimensions of the ecological niche has rarely been explored for an entire clade. Here, we compare the magnitude of climatic niche shifts between sympatric versus allopatric divergence of lineages in butterflies. By combining next-generation sequencing, parametric biogeography and ecological niche analyses applied to a genus-wide phylogeny of Palaearctic Pyrgus butterflies, we compare evolutionary rates along eight climatic dimensions across sister lineages that diverged in large-scale sympatry versus allopatry. In order to examine the possible effects of the spatial scale at which sympatry is defined, we considered three sets of biogeographic assignments, ranging from narrow to broad definition. Our findings suggest higher rates of niche evolution along all climatic dimensions for sister lineages that diverge in sympatry, when using a narrow delineation of biogeographic areas. This result contrasts with significantly lower rates of climatic niche evolution found in cases of allopatric speciation, despite the biogeographic regions defined here being characterized by significantly different climates. Higher rates in allopatry are retrieved when biogeographic areas are too widely defined—in such a case allopatric events may be recorded as sympatric. Our results reveal the macro-evolutionary significance of abiotic niche differentiation involved in speciation processes within biogeographic regions, and illustrate the importance of the spatial scale chosen to define areas when applying parametric biogeographic analyses.
Data from: Distal-less activates butterfly eyespots consistent with a reaction diffusion process
Eyespots on the wings of nymphalid butterflies represent colorful examples of pattern formation, yet the developmental origins and mechanisms underlying eyespot center differentiation are still poorly understood. Using CRISPR-Cas9 we re-examine the function of Distal-less (Dll) as an activator or repressor of eyespots, a topic that remains controversial. We show that the phenotypic outcome of CRISPR mutations depends upon which specific exon is targeted. In Bicyclus anynana, exon 2 mutations are associated with both missing and ectopic eyespots and also exon-skipping. Exon 3 mutations, which do not lead to exon-skipping, produce only null phenotypes including missing eyespots, lighter wing coloration and loss of scales. Reaction-diffusion modeling of Dll function, using Wnt and Dpp as candidate morphogens, accurately replicates these complex crispant phenotypes. These results provide new insight into the function of Dll as a potential activator of eyespot development, scale growth, and melanization, and suggest that the tuning of Dll expression levels can generate a diversity of eyespot phenotypes, including their appearance on the wing.
Data from: Pollen feeding, resource allocation and the evolution of chemical defense in passion vine butterflies
Evolution of pollen feeding in Heliconius has allowed exploitation of rich amino acid sources and dramatically reorganized life history traits. In Heliconius eggs are produced mainly from adult acquired resources, leaving somatic development and maintenance to larva effort. This innovation may also have spurred evolution of chemical defense via amino acid-derived cyanogenic glycosides. By contrast, non-pollen feeding heliconiines must rely almost exclusively on larval-acquired resources for both reproduction and defense. We tested whether adult amino acid intake has an immediate influence on cyanogenesis in Heliconius. Because Heliconius are more distasteful to bird predators than close relatives that do not utilize pollen we also compared cyanogenesis due to larval input across Heliconius species and non-pollen-feeding relatives. Except for one species, we found that varying the amino acid diet of an adult Heliconius has negligible effect on its cyanide concentration. Adults denied amino acids showed no decrease in cyanide and no adults showed cyanide increase when fed amino acids. Yet, pollen-feeding butterflies were capable of producing more defense than non-pollen feeding relatives and differences were detectable in freshly emerged adults, before input of adult resources. Our data points to a larger role of larval input in adult chemical defense. This, coupled with the compartmentalization of adult nutrition to reproduction and longevity suggests that one evolutionary consequence of pollen feeding, shifting the burden of reproduction to adults, is to allow the evolution of greater allocation of host plant amino acids to defensive compounds by larvae.
Data from: Specialization and accuracy of host-searching butterflies in complex and simple environments
Populations that have access to a variety of resources are often composed of individuals that specialize on different subsets of resources. Understanding the behavioral mechanisms that drive such individual specialization will help us predict the strength of this specialization across different environments. Here, we explore the idea that individual specialization may be a consequence of constraints on an individual's ability to process information. Because many environments contain an overwhelming number of resources and associated stimuli, individuals that specialize by focusing on only a subset of these resources may make more accurate decisions than individuals that generalize. Furthermore, we expect individuals in complex environments, where there are more resources and associated stimuli to process, to specialize during their search for resources compared to individuals in simple environments. We tested these predictions by measuring the accuracy and degree of specialization of naïve cabbage white butterflies (Pieris rapae) searching for two target host species (radish and cabbage) in simple (one distractor species) and more complex (four distractor species) environments. Only butterflies that specialized on cabbage were more accurate than butterflies that visited a mixture of both radish and cabbage. Furthermore, naïve butterflies searching for hosts in complex environments did not adopt more specialized foraging strategies than naive butterflies searching for hosts in simple environments. Taken together, these results suggest that the foraging benefits associated with specialization might only apply to certain resources (perhaps those that have readily recognizable cues) and that such specializations can be related to accuracy across multiple environments.
Data from: Does divergent selection predict the evolution of mate preference and reproductive isolation in the tropical butterfly genus Melinaea (Nymphalidae: Ithomiini)?
Many studies have shown that speciation can be facilitated when a trait under divergent selection also causes assortative mating. In Müllerian mimetic butterflies, a change in wing colour pattern can cause reproductive isolation. However, colour pattern divergence does not always lead to reproductive isolation. Understanding how divergent selection affects speciation requires identifying the mechanisms that promote mate preference and/or choosiness. This study addresses whether shifts in wing colour pattern drives mate preference and reproductive isolation in the tropical butterfly genus Melinaea (Nymphalidae: Ithomiini), and focuses on five taxa that form a speciation continuum, from subspecies to fully recognized species. Using genetic markers, wing colour pattern quantification, male pheromone characterization and behavioural assays of mating preference, we characterize the extent of genetic and phenotypic differentiation between taxa and compare it to the level of reproductive isolation. We show strong premating isolation between the closely related species M. satevis and M. marsaeus, in addition to genetic and phenotypic (colour pattern and pheromones) differentiation. By contrast, M. menophilus and M. marsaeus consist of pairs of subspecies that differ for colour pattern but that cannot be differentiated genetically. Pheromonal differentiation of subspecies was significant only for M. marsaeus, although most individuals were indistinguishable. Melinaea menophilus and M. marsaeus also differ in the strength of assortative mating, suggesting that mate preference has evolved only in M. marsaeus, consistent with selection against maladaptive offspring, as subspecific "hybrids" of M. marsaeus have intermediate, non‐mimetic colour patterns, unlike those of M. menophilus which display either parental phenotypes. We conclude that a shift in colour pattern per se is not sufficient for reproductive isolation, but rather, the evolution of assortative mating may be caused by selection against maladaptive intermediate phenotypes. This study suggests that mate preference and assortative mating evolve when adaptive, and that even in the early stages of divergence, reproductive isolation can be nearly complete due to mating preferences.
Data from: Admixture and the organization of genetic diversity in a butterfly species complex revealed through common and rare genetic variants
Detailed information about the geographic distribution of genetic and genomic variation is necessary to better understand the organization and structure of biological diversity. In particular, spatial isolation within species and hybridization between them can blur species boundaries and create evolutionary relationships that are inconsistent with a strictly bifurcating tree model. Here we analyze genome-wide DNA sequence and genetic ancestry variation in Lycaeides butterflies to quantify the effects of admixture and spatial isolation on how biological diversity is organized in this group. We document geographically widespread and pervasive historic admixture, with more restricted recent hybridization. This includes evidence supporting previously known and unknown instances of admixture. The genome composition of admixed individuals varies much more among than within populations, and tree- and genetic ancestry-based analyses indicate that multiple distinct admixed lineages or populations exist. We find that most genetic variants in Lycaeides are rare (minor allele frequency < 0.5%). Because the spatial and taxonomic distributions of alleles reflect demographic and selective processes since mutation, rare alleles, which are presumably younger than common alleles, were spatially and taxonomically restricted compared to common variants. Thus, we show patterns of genetic variation in this group are multifaceted, and we argue that this complexity challenges simplistic notions concerning the organization of biological diversity into discrete, easily delineated, and hierarchically structured entities.
Data from: Environmental and genetic control of cold tolerance in the Glanville fritillary butterfly
Thermal tolerance has a major effect on individual fitness and species distributions, and can be determined by genetic variation as well as phenotypic plasticity. We investigate the effects of developmental and adult thermal conditions on cold tolerance, measured as chill coma recovery (CCR) time, during the early and late adult stage in the Glanville fritillary butterfly. We also investigate the genetic basis of cold tolerance by associating CCR variation with polymorphisms in candidate genes that have a known role in insect physiology. Our results demonstrate that a cooler developmental temperature leads to reduced cold tolerance in the early adult stage, whereas cooler conditions during the adult stage lead to increased cold tolerance. This suggests that adult acclimation, but not developmental plasticity, of adult cold tolerance is adaptive. This could be explained by the ecological conditions the Glanville fritillary experiences in the field, where temperature during early summer, but not spring, is predictive of thermal conditions during the butterfly's flight season. In addition, an amino acid polymorphism (Ala-Glu) in the gene flightin, which has a known function in insect flight and locomotion, was associated with chill coma recovery. These amino acids have distinct biochemical properties and may thus affect protein function and/or structure. To our knowledge, our study is the first to link genetic variation in flightin to cold tolerance, or thermal adaptation in general.
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Allen Brain Atlas
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