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Fig. 4 in Taxonomic revision of the king cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) species complex (Reptilia: Serpentes: Elapidae), with the description of two new species
Fig. 4. Plate XII from Cantor (1836), showing head in dorsal and ventral views, scale closeups and the posterior venter and tail of a syntype of Hamadryas hannah Cantor, 1836.
Fig. 6. Plate XVII, figures 8–9 in Taxonomic revision of the king cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) species complex (Reptilia: Serpentes: Elapidae), with the description of two new species
Fig. 6. Plate XVII, figures 8–9 from Schlegel (1837), showing head in dorsal and lateral views of lectotype of Naja bungarus Schlegel, 1837 (RMNH 1334).
Fig. 9 in Taxonomic revision of the king cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) species complex (Reptilia: Serpentes: Elapidae), with the description of two new species
Fig. 9. Head in dorsal, ventral and lateral views of respective type specimens of species of Ophiophagus Günther, 1864. A–C. Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836), neotype, ♀ (ZSI 8292). A. Dorsal view of head. B. Ventral view of head. C. Left lateral view of head. D–F. Ophiophagus bungarus (Schlegel, 1837) comb. nov., lectotype, ♂ (RMNH 1334). D. Dorsal view of head. E. Ventral view of head. F. Left lateral view of head. G–I. Ophiophagus kaalinga Gowri Shankar, Das & Ganesh sp. nov., holotype, ♂ (BNHS 3655). G. Dorsal view of head. H. Ventral view of head. I. Left lateral view of head. J–L. Ophiophagus salvatana Gowri Shankar, Das & Wüster sp. nov., holotype, ♂ (CAS 61329). J. Dorsal view of head. K. Ventral view of head. L. Left lateral view of head.
Fig. 1 in Taxonomic revision of the king cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) species complex (Reptilia: Serpentes: Elapidae), with the description of two new species
Fig. 1. Illustration of morphological characters and measurement landmarks used in the taxonomic descriptions of the Ophiophagus hannah species complex. Sketch by H.Vinod Kumar.
Fig. 3. Plate XI in Taxonomic revision of the king cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) species complex (Reptilia: Serpentes: Elapidae), with the description of two new species
Fig. 3. Plate XI from Cantor (1836), showing cranium, mandible, dissected head and venom glands of a syntype of Hamadryas hannah Cantor, 1836.
Fig. 2. Plate X in Taxonomic revision of the king cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) species complex (Reptilia: Serpentes: Elapidae), with the description of two new species
Fig. 2. Plate X from Cantor (1836), showing head with neck expanded in anterior and posterior views of a syntype of Hamadryas hannah Cantor, 1836.
Fig. 5 in Taxonomic revision of the king cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) species complex (Reptilia: Serpentes: Elapidae), with the description of two new species
Fig. 5. Holotype of Naia vittata Elliot, 1840. Top. Photograph of the preserved holotype specimen BMNH 1996.451. Bottom. Plate I from Elliot (1840).
Fig. 8. Plate 8 in Taxonomic revision of the king cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) species complex (Reptilia: Serpentes: Elapidae), with the description of two new species
Fig. 8. Plate 8, from Fayrer (1872) depicting the 'Dusky variety' of Ophiophagus elaps (Günther, 1858), and corresponding to Ophiophagus kaalinga Gowri Shankar, Das & Ganesh sp. nov., showing entire body of a hooding adult in mostly a dorsolateral view.
Fig. 15 in Taxonomic revision of the king cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) species complex (Reptilia: Serpentes: Elapidae), with the description of two new species
Fig. 15. Live unvouchered adults of Ophiophagus kaalinga Gowri Shankar, Das & Ganesh sp. nov. showing variation in colour pattern. A. Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, India (photo: Naveen Joseph). B–C. Agumbe, Karnataka, India (photo: P. Gowri Shankar). D. Goa, India (photo: P. Gowri Shankar).
Fig. 7. Plate 7, figures 1–4 in Taxonomic revision of the king cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) species complex (Reptilia: Serpentes: Elapidae), with the description of two new species
Fig. 7. Plate 7, figures 1–4 from Fayrer (1872), depicting Ophiophagus elaps (Günther, 1858), and corresponding to Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) s. str., showing the body in dorsolateral view of an adult with a partially raised forebody. Also shown are line drawings of head in dorsal, ventral and lateral views.
Fig. 14 in Taxonomic revision of the king cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) species complex (Reptilia: Serpentes: Elapidae), with the description of two new species
Fig. 14. Live unvouchered adults of Ophiophagus bungarus (Schlegel, 1837) comb. nov. showing variations in colour pattern. A. Peninsular Malaysia (photo: Ahmad Khaldun Ismail). B. Java, Indonesia (photo: Nathan Rusli). C. Bali, Indonesia (photo: Shinta Sukum). D. East Malaysia (photo: P. Gowri Shankar).
Fig. 13 in Taxonomic revision of the king cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) species complex (Reptilia: Serpentes: Elapidae), with the description of two new species
Fig. 13. Live unvouchered adults of Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) showing variations in colour pattern. A. Mizoram, India (photo: H.T. Lalremsanga). B. China (Adam Francis). C. Thailand (photo: P. Gowri Shankar). D. Andaman Islands, India (photo: Aaron Fernandes).
Fig. 11 in Taxonomic revision of the king cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) species complex (Reptilia: Serpentes: Elapidae), with the description of two new species
Fig. 11. Variation in dorsal bands in adults of the four species of Ophiophagus Günther, 1864 recognised in this study. A. O. kaalinga Gowri Shankar, Das & Ganesh sp. nov. B. O. hannah (Cantor, 1836). C. O. bungarus (Schlegel, 1837) comb. nov. D. O. salvatana Gowri Shankar, Das & Wüster sp. nov.
Fig. 10 in Taxonomic revision of the king cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) species complex (Reptilia: Serpentes: Elapidae), with the description of two new species
Fig. 10. View of dorsum of entire body of respective type specimens of species of Ophiophagus Günther, 1864. A. Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836), neotype, ♀ (ZSI 8292). B. Ophiophagus bungarus (Schlegel, 1837) comb. nov., lectotype, ♂ (RMNH 1334). C. Ophiophagus kaalinga Gowri Shankar, Das & Ganesh sp. nov., holotype, ♂ (BNHS 3655). D. Ophiophagus salvatana Gowri Shankar, Das & Wüster sp. nov., holotype, ♂ (CAS 61329).
Fig. 16 in Taxonomic revision of the king cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) species complex (Reptilia: Serpentes: Elapidae), with the description of two new species
Fig. 16. Live unvouchered adults of Ophiophagus salvatana Gowri Shankar, Das & Wüster sp. nov. showing colouration. A. Entire. B. Head close-up profiles, Luzon, Philippines (both photos Emerson Sy).
Table 2 in Taxonomic revision of the king cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) species complex (Reptilia: Serpentes: Elapidae), with the description of two new species
<p><b>Table 2.</b> Summary of measurements (range [n], in mm) of species of <i>Ophiophagus</i> Günther, 1864 recognised in this study. See ‘Terminology for character analysis’ for details. Abbreviations: BW = Midbody diameter; ED = Eye width; EYEN = Eye to nostril distance; EYES = Eye to snout distance; FL = Fang length from base; FW = Maximum fang width; HD = Head depth; HL = Head length; HW = Head width; IORB = Interorbital width; NOD = Nostril diameter; OCCL = Occipital length; ROSL = Rostral length; ROSW = Rostral width; SVL = Snout-vent length; TL = Tail length (if entire).</p><table><tbody><tr><th><b>Characters</b></th><th><i>O. hannah</i> s. str.</th><th><i>O. bungarus</i> comb. nov.</th><th><i>O. kaalinga</i> sp. nov.</th><th><i>O. salvatana</i> sp. nov.</th></tr></tbody><tbody><tr><th>SVL</th><td>233.0–3276.0 (37)</td><td>330.0–3790.0 (65)</td><td>496.0–2660.0 (4)</td><td>1490.0–2565.0 (4)</td></tr><tr><th>TL</th><td>84.0–875 (37)</td><td>111.0–845.0 (61)</td><td>109.0–542.0 (3)</td><td>343.0–770.0 (4)</td></tr><tr><th>RTL range (mean)</th><td>21.7–26.4% (24.05%)</td><td>19.3–25.1% (22.20%)</td><td>18.0–19.9% (18.95%)</td><td>18.7–23.0% (20.85%)</td></tr><tr><th>BW</th><td>6.7–45.9 (55)</td><td>12.5–64.5 (36)</td><td>11.7–60.0 (4)</td><td>28.1–45.9 (3)</td></tr><tr><th>HL</th><td>13.3–79.2 (61)</td><td>16.0–76.6 (68)</td><td>50.9–74.6 (4)</td><td>36.2–70.8 (5)</td></tr><tr><th>HW</th><td>10.9–53.5 (59)</td><td>7.1–60.4 (70)</td><td>10.5–54.7 (5)</td><td>22.9–57.2 (5)</td></tr><tr><th>HD</th><td>6.6–48.4 (54)</td><td>6.7–76.0 (70)</td><td>22.8–37.2 (4)</td><td>14.8–36.7 (5)</td></tr><tr><th>ED</th><td>3.7–10.5 (57)</td><td>4.1–9.8 (73)</td><td>4.2–9.7 (5)</td><td>6.3–11.1 (5)</td></tr><tr><th>EYES</th><td>4.4–27.6 (62)</td><td>5.2–26.3 (71)</td><td>18.5–25.2 (4)</td><td>12.1–21.6 (5)</td></tr><tr><th>EYEN</th><td>1.9–14.3 (62)</td><td>2.1–13.5 (71)</td><td>2.8–11.5 (5)</td><td>5.2–9.9 (5)</td></tr><tr><th>NOD</th><td>1.2–7.3 (61)</td><td>1.0–6.9 (71)</td><td>5.8–9.5 (4)</td><td>3.1–6.4 (5)</td></tr><tr><th>ROSL</th><td>3.1–19.9 (61)</td><td>3.2–18.7 (71)</td><td>12.0–16.6 (4)</td><td>8.6–15.6 (5)</td></tr><tr><th>ROSW</th><td>1.7–9.7 (60)</td><td>2.0–8.8 (71)</td><td>6.1–8.0 (4)</td><td>4.8–7.6 (5)</td></tr><tr><th>IORB</th><td>5.9–34.2 (61)</td><td>7.5–12.3 (71)</td><td>23.4–31.8 (4)</td><td>14.8–25.9 (5)</td></tr><tr><th>OCCL</th><td>2.7–24.0 (61)</td><td>3.4–19.9 (71)</td><td>3.8–18.3 (5)</td><td>9.6–21.3 (5)</td></tr><tr><th>FL</th><td>0.10–10.10 (48)</td><td>0.13–13.60 (50)</td><td>7.10–8.50 (4)</td><td>4.50–12.00 (4)</td></tr><tr><th>FW</th><td>0.04–4.80 (45)</td><td>0.01–4.50 (50)</td><td>1.90–2.40 (4)</td><td>1.10–3.30 (4)</td></tr></tbody></table>
Table 1 in Taxonomic revision of the king cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) species complex (Reptilia: Serpentes: Elapidae), with the description of two new species
<p><b>Table 1.</b> Summary of morphological characters associated with species of <i>Ophiophagus</i> Günther, 1864 recognised in this study. See ‘Terminology for character analysis’ for details. Note: pale dorsal bands are sometimes absent in adult <i>O. bungarus</i> (Schlegel, 1837) comb. nov. (in images of live specimens examined), and consistently absent in adult <i>O. salvatana</i> Gowri Shankar, Das & Wüster sp. nov. Further, juveniles of the latter show pale bands (in images of three live specimens examined; no voucher specimens of juvenile <i>O. salvatana</i> were available for study).</p><table><tbody><tr><th><b>Characters</b></th><th><b>Statistics</b></th><th><i>O. hannah</i> s. str.</th><th><i>O. bungarus</i> comb. nov.</th><th><i>O. kaalinga</i> sp. nov.</th><th><i>O. salvatana</i> sp. nov.</th></tr></tbody><tbody><tr><th>Anterior dorsal scale rows (DSR1)</th><td>Mean</td><td>18.0</td><td>18.9</td><td>19.5</td><td>18.6</td></tr><tr><td>Range</td><td>17–19</td><td>17–21</td><td>19–21</td><td>17–19</td></tr><tr><td>(n)</td><td>15</td><td>46</td><td>4</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><th>Median dorsal scale rows (DSR2)</th><td>Mean</td><td>15.0</td><td>15.0</td><td>15.0</td><td>15.0</td></tr><tr><td>Range</td><td>15–15</td><td>15–15</td><td>15–15</td><td>15–15</td></tr><tr><td>(n)</td><td>15</td><td>12</td><td>4</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><th>Posterior dorsal scale rows (DSR3)</th><td>Mean</td><td>13.8</td><td>14.0</td><td>15.0</td><td>15.0</td></tr><tr><td>Range</td><td>11–15</td><td>13–15</td><td>15–15</td><td>15–15</td></tr><tr><td>(n)</td><td>13</td><td>12</td><td>4</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><th>Ventrals</th><td>Mean</td><td>244.0</td><td>250.12</td><td>247.8</td><td>251.0</td></tr><tr><td>Range</td><td>226–267</td><td>253–268</td><td>241–251</td><td>247–256</td></tr><tr><td>(n)</td><td>49</td><td>58</td><td>4</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><th>Subcaudals</th><td>Mean</td><td>89.0</td><td>106.8</td><td>88.0</td><td>93</td></tr><tr><td>Range</td><td>80–112</td><td>71–125</td><td>86–90</td><td>74–112</td></tr><tr><td>(n)</td><td>49</td><td>57</td><td>4</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><th>Precloacal</th><td>Mean</td><td>1.0</td><td>1.0</td><td>1.0</td><td>1.0</td></tr><tr><td>Range</td><td>1–1</td><td>1–1</td><td>1–1</td><td>1–1</td></tr><tr><td>(n)</td><td>49</td><td>63</td><td>4</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><th>Supralabials</th><td>Mean</td><td>6.9</td><td>7.0</td><td>7.4</td><td>7.0</td></tr><tr><td>Range</td><td>6–7</td><td>7–7</td><td>7–8</td><td>7–7</td></tr><tr><td>(n)</td><td>15</td><td>68</td><td>5</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><th>Infralabials</th><td>Mean</td><td>8.0</td><td>8.0</td><td>8.0</td><td>8.0</td></tr><tr><td>Range</td><td>7–9</td><td>8–8</td><td>8–8</td><td>8–8</td></tr><tr><td>(n)</td><td>15</td><td>68</td><td>5</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><th>Pale body bands</th><td>Mean</td><td>39.6</td><td>72.0</td><td>35.0</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Range</td><td>27–48</td><td>57–87</td><td>28–48</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>(n)</td><td>41</td><td>51</td><td>3</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><th>Pterygoid teeth</th><td>Mean</td><td>19.3</td><td>11</td><td>12</td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td>Range</td><td>18–21</td><td>11–11</td><td>12–12</td><td>11–11</td></tr><tr><td>(n)</td><td>12</td><td>9</td><td>4</td><td>6</td></tr></tbody></table>
Data from: Venom-gland transcriptome and venom proteome of the Malaysian king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah)
Background: The king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) is widely distributed throughout many parts of Asia. This study aims to investigate the complexity of Malaysian Ophiophagus hannah (MOh) venom for a better understanding of king cobra venom variation and its envenoming pathophysiology. The venom gland transcriptome was investigated using the Illumina HiSeq™ platform, while the venom proteome was profiled by 1D-SDS-PAGE-nano-ESI-LCMS/MS. Results: Transcriptomic results reveal high redundancy of toxin transcripts (3357.36 FPKM/transcript) despite small cluster numbers, implying gene duplication and diversification within restricted protein families. Among the 23 toxin families identified, three-finger toxins (3FTxs) and snake-venom metalloproteases (SVMPs) have the most diverse isoforms. These 2 toxin families are also the most abundantly transcribed, followed in descending order by phospholipases A 2 (PLA 2 s), cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISPs), Kunitz-type inhibitors (KUNs), and L-amino acid oxidases (LAAOs). Seventeen toxin families exhibited low mRNA expression, including hyaluronidase, DPP-IV and 5'-nucleotidase that were not previously reported in the venom-gland transcriptome of a Balinese O. hannah. On the other hand, the MOh proteome includes 3FTxs, the most abundantly expressed proteins in the venom (43 % toxin sbundance). Within this toxin family, there are 6 long-chain, 5 short-chain and 2 non-conventional 3FTx. Neurotoxins comprise the major 3FTxs in the MOh venom, consistent with rapid neuromuscular paralysis reported in systemic envenoming. The presence of toxic enzymes such as LAAOs, SVMPs and PLA 2 would explain tissue inflammation and necrotising destruction in local envenoming. Dissimilarities in the subtypes and sequences between the neurotoxins of MOh and Naja kaouthia (monocled cobra) are in agreement with the poor cross-neutralization activity of N. kaouthia antivenom used against MOh venom. Besides, the presence of cobra venom factor, nerve growth factors, phosphodiesterase, 5'-nucleotidase, and DPP-IV in the venom proteome suggests its probable hypotensive action in subduing prey. Conclusion: This study reports the diversity and abundance of toxins in the venom of the Malaysian king cobra (MOh). The results correlate with the pathophysiological actions of MOh venom, and dispute the use of Naja cobra antivenoms to treat MOh envenomation. The findings also provide a deeper insight into venom variations due to geography, which is crucial for the development of a useful pan-regional antivenom.
Data from: Venom-gland transcriptome and venom proteome of the Malaysian king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah)
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Fig. 12 in Taxonomic revision of the king cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) species complex (Reptilia: Serpentes: Elapidae), with the description of two new species
Fig. 12. Variation in dorsal body bands in juveniles of the four species of Ophiophagus Günther, 1864 recognised in this study.A. O. hannah (Cantor, 1836) (photo: H.T. Lalremsanga). B. O. bungarus (Schlegel, 1837) comb. nov. (photo: T. Charlton). C. O. kaalinga Gowri Shankar, Das & Ganesh sp. nov. (photo: P. Gowri Shankar). D. O. salvatana Gowri Shankar, Das & Wüster sp. nov. (photo: Bernard Tarun).
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