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44 results for “Vertebral column”
Fig. 8 in The digital Plateosaurus II: An assessment of the range of motion of the limbs and vertebral column and of previous reconstructions using a digital skeletal mount
Fig. 8. Digital skeleton mount of prosauropod Plateosaurus engelhardti Meyer, 1837 GPIT1, from Trossingen, Germany, posed to conform to drawings by Paul (1987, 2000; Fig. 2A). A. Left antepodium and manus in lateral and dorsal view. B. Right antepodium and manus in medial and dorsal view. C. Right crus and pes in medial view. Note intersection of tarsals and metatarsals with crus. D. Pelvis and femora in lateral view. E. Anteroventral view, parallel with the long axis of the dorsal column, of the pelvis and femora and the last five dorsal ribs. F. Lateral view of "gallop" position. Note gaps in knees and neck. Length of ulna 239 mm, length of fibula 463 mm, length of femur 595 mm.
Fig. 7 in The digital Plateosaurus II: An assessment of the range of motion of the limbs and vertebral column and of previous reconstructions using a digital skeletal mount
Fig. 7. Digital skeleton mount of prosauropod Plateosaurus engelhardti Meyer, 1837 GPIT1, from Trossingen, Germany, posed: head at ground level (A), hands at ground level (B), resting pose in lateral (C) and dorsal (D) views. Length of femur 595 mm.
Fig. 4 in The digital Plateosaurus II: An assessment of the range of motion of the limbs and vertebral column and of previous reconstructions using a digital skeletal mount
Fig. 4. Range of motion of prosauropod Plateosaurus engelhardti Meyer, 1837 using the digital skeleton mount of GPIT, from Trossingen, Germany. A. Lateral view of cervicals in neutral articulation, maximal dorsiflexion and maximal ventriflexion. B. Dorsal view of cervicals in neutral articulation and maximal lateral flexion. C–F. Dorsal vertebral column and ribcage in dorsal view in maximal lateral flexion (C), lateral view in maximal ventriflexion (D), lateral view in maximal dorsiflexion (E); air exchange volume determination (F). Pink ribs and dark green volume = exhaled volume, red ribs and translucent green volume = inhaled volume. See text for further explanation. G. Tail in lateral view, showing (top to bottom) dorsiflexion at 10° and at 5° per joint, neutral articulation, maximum ventriflexion. H. Tail in dorsal view, straight and at 10° lateral flexion. Length of cervical series 103 cm, length of dorsal series 137 cm, length of caudal series 261 cm. Anterior to the left in A–C and F–H, to the right in D and E.
Fig. 3 in The digital Plateosaurus II: An assessment of the range of motion of the limbs and vertebral column and of previous reconstructions using a digital skeletal mount
Fig. 3. Examples for the influence of soft tissues on joint motions. A. Outline drawing of caudals 5 and 6 of salt−water crocodile Crocodylus porosus, IPFUB OS 13 in dorsal view. Anterior is up. Caudal 6 is shown in positions with full, 50% and minimal zyapophysal overlap (0°, 10°, 21°, respectively). Width of caudal 5 across transverse processes is 113 mm. B–D. Ulnae of stegosaur Kentrosaurus aethiopicus Hennig, 1915 from the Upper Jurassic Tendaguru Formation of Tanzania, in anterior (B1–D1) and lateral (B2–D2) views. Right (B, field number St [unknown]) and left (C, field number St 113) ulnae, both part of GPIT 1424 (mounted skeleton). D. Left ulna (part of skeletal mount in MFN) MB.R.4800.33 (length 306 mm) shows cartilage preservation on the distal and especially proximal end, preserving a large olceranon process.
Fig. 6 in The digital Plateosaurus II: An assessment of the range of motion of the limbs and vertebral column and of previous reconstructions using a digital skeletal mount
Fig. 6. Range of motion of the hind limb of prosauropod Plateosaurus engelhardti Meyer, 1837 using the digital skeleton mount of GPIT1, from Trossingen, Germany. A–H. Left pes in left to right: flexion, probable standing pose, extension, in lateral (A), medial (B), oblique (C–F), plantar (G), and dorsal (H) views. Length of metatarsal III 231 mm. I–K. Pelvis and left hind limb, in lateral (I, J) and anterior (K) views. I, K, probable standing (blue) and minimally possible flexion (resting) pose; J, maximum femur protraction and retraction angles for locomotion, resulting stride length 1.34 m. L. Left hind limb showing knee range of motion. Crus positions left to right: maximal extension, maximum flexion under large loads, maximum flexion for resting. M. Crus in lateral view, showing maximum ankle flexion and extension under load. Length of fibula 463 mm.
Fig. 2 in The digital Plateosaurus II: An assessment of the range of motion of the limbs and vertebral column and of previous reconstructions using a digital skeletal mount
Fig. 2. Skeletal reconstructions of prosauropod Plateosaurus engelhardti Meyer, 1837, redrawn from: A. Paul (1987, 2000). B. Wellnhofer (1994). C. Jaekel (1913–1914). D. Huene (1926). E. Galton (1990). F. Weishampel and Westphal (1986). G. Scott Hartmann. (www.skeletaldrawing.com). Typical femur length of Plateosaurus is 0.6 to 0.8 m.
Fig. 5 in The digital Plateosaurus II: An assessment of the range of motion of the limbs and vertebral column and of previous reconstructions using a digital skeletal mount
Fig. 5. Range of motion of the fore limb of prosauropod Plateosaurus engelhardti Meyer, 1837 using the digital skeleton mount of GPIT1, from Trossingen, Germany. A–E. Left scapula and fore limb in anterior (A), anterolateral (B), anteromedial (C), lateral (D), and dorsal (E) views. Equal colors are identical positions. B is parallel, C is perpendicular to the main axis (flexion/extension) of the glenoid. Length of humerus 350 mm. Dashed line(s) refer to: body midline (A), orthogonal to scapula blade long axis (B), body midline and main axis of glenoid (C). Red numbers in B refer to elbow, black to humerus flexion/extension. Numbers in C refer to humerus abduction/adduction versus the vertical. F. Left radius and ulna in articulation in (top row) proximolateral, medial view, (bottom row) distal and lateral views. Length of ulna 237 mm. G. Radius and ulna in proximal view. Dotted line indicates main joint axis of elbow. Circle and lines show method for determination of theoretical maximal pronation angle. H–M. Left manus. H, I. Left to right: flexion, neutral position and extension in dorsal (H) and palmar (I) views. Digit IV duplicated in neutral position views to show lateromedial deviation range. J–M. Oblique views of flexion (J, K) and extension (L, M). Length of metacarpal III 97 mm.
Fig. 9 in The digital Plateosaurus II: An assessment of the range of motion of the limbs and vertebral column and of previous reconstructions using a digital skeletal mount
Fig. 9. Digital skeleton mount of prosauropod Plateosaurus engelhardti Meyer, 1837 GPIT1, from Trossingen, Germany. A. Anterior view of the pectoral girdle and forelimbs posed to conform to the life−sized, bipedal SMNS model (Fig. 1J) of Plateosaurus engelhardti. Dotted line indicates body outline of the model. Note gaps in elbows and wrists and too large gap between coracoids (arrows). B. Anterior view of the pelvic girdle posed to conform to the life−sized, bipedal SMNS model (Fig. 1J). Note gaps in the pelvis between sacrum and ilia, and between ilia and pubes (arrows). C. Virtual skeleton posed to conform to the toy model version (Fig. 1L) of the new SMNS quadrupedal model (Fig. 1K, L) of Plateosaurus engelhardti. Dotted line indicates body outline of the model. Arrows mark skeleton's (upper) and model's (lower arrow) knee joint. Note gaps in forelimbs and posterior ribs extending below the pubes. Length of the femur 595 mm, length of the ulna 239 mm.
Text-fig. 2. Stratigraphic column of the Eskişehir-Sivrihisar region (Central Turkey). The regional stratigraphy follows Kahraman (2018). Stars mark the positions of vertebrate localities. in Plio-Pleistocene Amphibians And Reptiles From Central Turkey: New Faunas And Faunal Records With Comments On Their Biochronological Position Based On Small Mammals
Text-fig. 2. Stratigraphic column of the Eskişehir-Sivrihisar region (Central Turkey). The regional stratigraphy follows Kahraman (2018). Stars mark the positions of vertebrate localities.
Figure 8 in The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) cervical vertebral column: a heuristic example in understanding evolutionary processes?
Figure 8. These graphs compare the measured individual cervical vertebrae lengths of fossil Giraffids (Table 4), compared with extant giraffes and the 'other ungulate' group used in this study. The measurement of total vertebral column lengths (TVLs) for the fossil giraffids were generated from the regressions derived for extant giraffes or 'other ungulates', whereas the lengths of the individual cervical vertebrae were taken from the literature (see Table 4). Note that the specimens for Giraffa sp., Samotherium, and Paleotragus germaini appear to scale in a manner similar to extant giraffes, whereas those of Paleotragus primaevus, Climacoceras, and Canthumeryx appear to fall within the range of ungulates that do not demonstrate cervical elongation.
Figure 6 in The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) cervical vertebral column: a heuristic example in understanding evolutionary processes?
Figure 6. Graphs of total vertebral column length plotted against the body lengths of C2–C7 vertebrae of all of the extant specimens studied. Other ungulates represent all species studied except the giraffe, camel, and llama. Note that for all specimens of the giraffe the vertebral lengths are longer than one would predict on the basis of a generalized ungulate regression, and scale more steeply than the ungulates. The dotted line on the ungulate plot is an extension of the ungulate regression that allows us to establish a comparison with the camel.
Figure 9 in The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) cervical vertebral column: a heuristic example in understanding evolutionary processes?
Figure 9. These graphs compare the measured individual cervical vertebrae lengths of fossil Giraffids (Table 4) with extant giraffes and the 'other ungulate' group used in this study. The measurement of normalized vertebral column lengths for the fossil giraffids were generated from the regressions derived for extant giraffes or 'other ungulates', whereas the lengths of the individual cervical vertebrae were taken from the literature (see Table 4). Note that the specimens for Giraffa sp., Samotherium, and Paleotragus germaini appear to scale in a manner similar to extant giraffes, whereas those of Paleotragus primaevus, Climacoceras, and Canthumeryx appear to fall within the range of ungulates that do not demonstrate cervical elongation.
Figure 5 in The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) cervical vertebral column: a heuristic example in understanding evolutionary processes?
Figure 5. Graph of total cervical vertebral length (TCL) vs. individual vertebral length of all the extant specimens studied. Note the way in which the giraffe cervical vertebrae scale in accordance with those seen in the other extant ungulates studied, with the only exception being the youngest giraffe (which was excluded from the regression analysis, but was placed on the graph for comparison).
Figure 2 in The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) cervical vertebral column: a heuristic example in understanding evolutionary processes?
Figure 2. Photographs of the lateral aspect of non-articulated giraffe vertebrae C6, C7, T1, and T2, demonstrating the osteological differences between cervical and thoracic vertebrae. Note the size of the transverse foramen in C7, the lack of a transverse foramina in T1 and T2, and the longer spinous process of T1 compared with C6 and C7.
Figure 4 in The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) cervical vertebral column: a heuristic example in understanding evolutionary processes?
Figure 4. Upper panel: the percentage contribution of the remaining vertebral regions to the vertebral column length minus that of the cervical of giraffes aged from calf to adult (ages are estimates). Lower panel: the percentage contributions of the remaining vertebral regions to the vertebral column length minus that of the cervical of the extant ungulates studied, in comparison with the adult giraffes. The percentage occupied by the various spinal regions in the giraffe falls into the same ranges observed in other ungulates when the cervical vertebrae are not included. Key: l, lumbar; s, sacral; t, thoracic.
Figure 3 in The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) cervical vertebral column: a heuristic example in understanding evolutionary processes?
Figure 3. Upper panel: the percentage contribution of the vertebral regions to the entire length of the vertebral column of giraffes aged from calf to adult (ages are estimates). In the calf, the cervical vertebrae occupy approximately 45% of the total vertebral length. As the animal matures, this increases to between 52 and 54%. Lower panel: the percentage contribution of the vertebral regions to the entire length of the vertebral column of the extant ungulates studied, compared with the adult giraffe. Note that only in the giraffes do the cervical vertebrae occupy more than half of the entire vertebral column. Key: c, cervical; l, lumbar; s, sacral; t, thoracic.
Figure 1 in The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) cervical vertebral column: a heuristic example in understanding evolutionary processes?
Figure 1. Photograph of the left aspect of giraffe vertebrae C6–T2, demonstrating how they are articulated in a living individual, and the differences between cervical and thoracic vertebrae. Note the size of the transverse foramen in C7 and the longer spinous process of T1 compared with C6 and C7.
Conserved patterns and locomotor-related evolutionary constraints in the hominoid vertebral column
<div> <div> <div> <p>The evolution of the hominoid lineage is characterized by pervasive homoplasy, notably in regions such as the vertebral column, which plays a central role in body support and locomotion. Few isolated and fewer associated vertebrae are known for most fossil hominoid taxa, but identified specimens indicate potentially high levels of convergence in terms of both form and number. Homoplasy thus complicates attempts to identify the anatomy of the last common ancestor of hominins and other taxa and stymies reconstructions of evolutionary scenarios. One way to clarify the role of homoplasy is by investigating constraints via phenotypic integration, which assesses covariation among traits, shapes evolutionary pathways, and itself evolves in response to selection. We assessed phenotypic integration and evolvability across the subaxial (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral) vertebral column of macaques (<em>n</em> = 96), gibbons (<em>n</em> = 77), chimpanzees (<em>n</em> = 92), and modern humans (<em>n</em> = 151). We found a mid-cervical cluster that may have shifted cranially in hominoids, a persistent thoracic cluster that is most marked in chimpanzees, and an expanded lumbosacral cluster in hominoids that is most expanded in gibbons. Our results highlight the highly conserved nature of the vertebral column. Taxa appear to exploit existing patterns of integration and ontogenetic processes to shift, expand, or reduce cluster boundaries. Gibbons appear to be the most highly derived taxon in our sample, possibly in response to their highly specialized locomotion.</p> </div> </div> </div>
Evolutionary rates and shape variation along the anuran vertebral column with attention to phylogeny, body size, and ecology
<p><span>The vertebral column is critical to a vertebrate species' flexibility and skeletal support, making vertebrae a clear target for selection. Anur</span><span>ans (frogs and toads) have a unique, truncated vertebral column that appears constrained to provide axial rigidity for efficient jumping. However, no study has examined how presacral vertebrae shape varies among anuran species at the macroevolutionary scale nor how intrinsic (developmental and phylogenetic) and extrinsic (ecological) factors may have influenced vertebrae shape evolution. We used microCT scans and phylogenetic comparative methods to examine the vertebrae of hundreds of anuran species that vary in body size as well as adult and larval ecology. We found variation in shape and evolutionary rates among anuran vertebrae, dispelling any notion that trunk vertebrae evolve uniformly. We discovered the highest evolutionary rates in the cervical vertebrae and in the more caudal trunk vertebrae. We found little evidence for selection pressures related to adult or larval ecology affecting vertebrae evolution, but we did find body size was highly associated with vertebrae shape and microhabitat (mainly burrowing) affected those allometric relationships. Our results provide an interesting comparison to vertebrae evolution in other clades and a jumping-off point for studies of anuran vertebrae evolution and development.</span></p>
Figure 2 in The vertebral column of Chaetophractus villosus (Desmarest, 1804) (Chlamyphoridae, Cingulata, Xenarthra): Anatomy and Thoracolumbar variation. Spinal cord relation
Figure 2. Trajectory of the vertebral artery and associated nerves in C. villosus. (A) Schematic drawing that shows the path of the vertebral artery along the cervical region in dorsal view. (B) Schematic drawing that shows the path of the vertebral artery within the lateral mass of the atlas in posterodorsal view.
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Allen Brain Atlas
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International Brain Laboratory public data
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OpenNeuro
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