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FIGURE 8 in Continuous character variation within the Glossopleura-Anoria-Sonoraspis plexus: Dolichometopid trilobites from the Cadiz Formation (Cambrian: Miaolingian, Wuliuan), California
FIGURE 8. Matrix characters for phylogenetic analysis shown on an unspecified species of dolichometopid trilobite (Glossopleura sp.). First number is character number (see Appendix for descriptions and matrix); number in parentheses is character state demonstrated by illustrated form. (Drawing courtesy of Sam Gon III.)
FIGURE 3 in Continuous character variation within the Glossopleura-Anoria-Sonoraspis plexus: Dolichometopid trilobites from the Cadiz Formation (Cambrian: Miaolingian, Wuliuan), California
FIGURE 3. Relative eye position and length for dolichometopids in this study, by taxon and formation group (most traditional Glossopleura species blended). This version of the data shows the intermixing of Glossopleura and traditional Anoria and Sonorapis. Note that within taxa, eye position may vary greatly. Only eye length shows possible distinction between genera. Anoria tontoensis from the Bright Angel Formation (along with one specimen of A. bessus from the Gordon Shale) is smaller-eyed and separates from Glossopleura (including G. mckeei) but only at an arbitrary EL/GL of 0.380. A. lodensis, G. mohavensis, and S. californica all plot within Glossopleura.
FIGURE 2 in Continuous character variation within the Glossopleura-Anoria-Sonoraspis plexus: Dolichometopid trilobites from the Cadiz Formation (Cambrian: Miaolingian, Wuliuan), California
FIGURE 2. Relative eye position and length for dolichometopids measured in this study, showing low degree to which the studied specimens demonstrate large, posteriorly positioned eyes (toward upper right; historically features attributed to Glossopleura) or smaller, more anteriorly positioned eyes (toward lower left, normally attributed to Anoria and Sonoraspis). Data set equation shows a shallow slope and very weak correlation.
FIGURE 9 in Continuous character variation within the Glossopleura-Anoria-Sonoraspis plexus: Dolichometopid trilobites from the Cadiz Formation (Cambrian: Miaolingian, Wuliuan), California
FIGURE 9. Phylogenetic analysis of 12 dolichometopid taxa for which there are relatively complete specimens, plus two outgroup taxa. A) Strict consensus of 40 MPTs of 41 steps. B) Strict consensus of 4 MPTs of 38 steps, after removal of the less well represented taxon G. bion. C) Strict consensus of 2 MPTs of 35 steps with just 8 dolichometopid taxa, after assuming the following synonymies: G. mckeei = G. boccar; S. californica = G. mohavensis; and G. producta = G. boccar. See text.
FIGURE 4 in Continuous character variation within the Glossopleura-Anoria-Sonoraspis plexus: Dolichometopid trilobites from the Cadiz Formation (Cambrian: Miaolingian, Wuliuan), California
FIGURE 4. Comparison of cranial measurements (in mm) in dolichometopids assigned to Glossopleura (blue), Sonoraspis (red), and Anoria (black). A) Eye length relative to glabella length. B) Eye position as represented by mid-ocular distance versus glabella length. Genera coded by color as noted above. Species denoted by symbols as listed alphabetically here: Glossopleura bion (filled blue squares), G. boccar (open blue diamonds), G. campbelli (open blue circles), G. gigantea (open blue ovals), G. lodensis (blue stars), G. mckeei (open blue triangles), G. mohavensis (blue dashes), G. producta (filled blue triangles), G. similaris (open inverted blue triangles), G. stephenensis (filled inverted blue triangles), G. utahensis (vertical blue bars), G. walcotti (filled blue diamonds), G. yatesi (filled blue circles); Sonoraspis californica (filled red squares), S. gomezi (open red squares), S. nelsoni (red pluses); Anoria baton (black pluses), A. bessus (black X), and A. tontoensis (filled black circles),
FIGURE 11 in Continuous character variation within the Glossopleura-Anoria-Sonoraspis plexus: Dolichometopid trilobites from the Cadiz Formation (Cambrian: Miaolingian, Wuliuan), California
FIGURE 11. Some representative dolichometopids from other formations included in this study. A–B and D–E) Glossopleura boccar. C) Glossopleura similaris(?) F) Anoria tontoensis. G–H) Glossopleura mohavensis. A) USNM 62703, type of Glossopleura boccar, from the Stephen Formation. B) USNM 62702, specimen originally assigned to G. stephenensis, from the Stephen Formation. C) KUMIP 314054, G. similaris(?), from the Spence Shale (Langston Formation). D) SGDS 1975, G. boccar, from the Chisholm Formation. E) USNM 62714, specimen originally assigned to G. mckeei, from the Bright Angel Formation. F) USNM 62685, Anoria tontoensis, from the Bright Angel Formation. G) LACMIP 10782, specimen originally assigned to "Sonoraspis nelsoni", from the Monola Formation. H) LACMIP 2469/24444.1, specimen originally assigned to "Sonoraspis californica", from the Pole Canyon Formation. (Image in D courtesy of Andrew R.C. Milner. G and H courtesy LACM: Hendy, A., Walker, L., Mertz, W. [2020]. LACM Invertebrate Paleontology. Version 1.9. Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/ 10.15468/6nxzen accessed via GBIF.org on 2021-03-23.) All scale bars equal 1 cm.
FIGURE 10. Dolichometopid trilobite specimens from the Cadiz Formation, California. A in Continuous character variation within the Glossopleura-Anoria-Sonoraspis plexus: Dolichometopid trilobites from the Cadiz Formation (Cambrian: Miaolingian, Wuliuan), California
FIGURE 10. Dolichometopid trilobite specimens from the Cadiz Formation, California. A) Glossopleura lodensis (USNM 78400a), note eight thoracic segments, elongate T5 pleural spines, anteriorly expanded glabella, and long eyes (impression, lighting from left). B) Glossopleura mohavensis (USNM 78400b), note eight thoracic segments (dorsal exoskeleton, lighting from left). C) Glossopleura mohavensis (LACM 10785; "Sonoraspis californica"), note wide glabella, eight thoracic segments, and axial spine bases (impression, lighting from left). D) Glossopleura mohavensis (LACM 10786; "Sonoraspis californica"), note wide glabella, eight thoracic segments, and axial spine bases (impression, lighting from left). E) Glossopleura mohavensis (MWC 7769), note eight thoracic segments (dorsal exoskeleton, lighting from left). F) Glossopleura mohavensis (MWC 7779), (dorsal exoskeleton, lighting from left). A and B from the Bristol Mountains; C and D from near Section A of Foster (1994) (type section; north of Route 66), Marble Mountains; E and F from UCR 7359, near Section B of Foster (1994) (south of Route 66), Marble Mountains. All scale bars = 1 cm.
FIGURE 6 in Continuous character variation within the Glossopleura-Anoria-Sonoraspis plexus: Dolichometopid trilobites from the Cadiz Formation (Cambrian: Miaolingian, Wuliuan), California
FIGURE 6. Anterior expansion of glabella in dolichometopids. A) Comparing AGW/MGW and AGW/PGW, showing Anoria and Sonoraspis less expanded but well mixed with Glossopleura specimens. B) Full data set statistics.
FIGURE 1 in Continuous character variation within the Glossopleura-Anoria-Sonoraspis plexus: Dolichometopid trilobites from the Cadiz Formation (Cambrian: Miaolingian, Wuliuan), California
FIGURE 1. Measurements taken of dolichometopid cephala for this study. Abbreviations: AGW, anterior glabella width; CW, cephalon width; EL, eye length; GL, glabella length; MGW, mid-glabella width; MOD, midocular distance; PGW, posterior glabella width.
Figure 6. PCA scatter plot for the 2 canonical variates generated from the 7 morphometric characters from 5 in Morphological and biometrical comparisons of the baculum in the genus Nannospalax Palmer, 1903 (Rodentia: Spalacidae) from Turkey with consideration of its taxonomic importance
Figure 6. PCA scatter plot for the 2 canonical variates generated from the 7 morphometric characters from 5 species.
Text-fig. 7. Plot of discriminant scores (R1/R2) of individual M1 of Apodemus spp. from particular Pleistocene biozones superimposed onto a plot of variation ranges for the respective variables for the Recent Apodemus sample (based on the discrimination analysis of total set of characters, both metric and non-metric). in Genus Apodemus In The Pleistocene Of Central Europe: When Did The Extant Taxa Appear?
Text-fig. 7. Plot of discriminant scores (R1/R2) of individual M1 of Apodemus spp. from particular Pleistocene biozones superimposed onto a plot of variation ranges for the respective variables for the Recent Apodemus sample (based on the discrimination analysis of total set of characters, both metric and non-metric).
Data from: A Bayesian approach for inferring the impact of a discrete character on rates of continuous-character evolution in the presence of background-rate variation
Understanding how and why rates of character evolution vary across the Tree of Life is central to many evolutionary questions; e.g., does the trophic apparatus (a set of continuous characters) evolve at a higher rate in fish lineages that dwell in reef versus non-reef habitats (a discrete character)? Existing approaches for inferring the relationship between a discrete character and rates of continuous-character evolution rely on comparing a null model (in which rates of continuous-character evolution are constant across lineages) to an alternative model (in which rates of continuous-character evolution depend on the state of the discrete character under consideration). However, these approaches are susceptible to a "straw-man" effect: the influence of the discrete character is inflated because the null model is extremely unrealistic. Here, we describe MuSSCRat, a Bayesian approach for inferring the impact of a discrete trait on rates of continuous-character evolution in the presence of alternative sources of rate variation ("background-rate variation"). We demonstrate by simulation that our method is able to reliably infer the degree of state-dependent rate variation, and show that ignoring background-rate variation leads to biased inferences regarding the degree of state-dependent rate variation in grunts (the fish group Haemulidae).
Character displacement drives floral variation in Pelargonium (Geraniaceae) communities
<p><span>Interactions between plant community members are an underexplored driver of angiosperm floral variation. We investigate character displacement as a potential contributor to floral variation in <i>Pelargonium</i> communities. Pelargoniums all place pollen on the ventral sides of their pollinators, potentially leading to interspecific pollen transfer (IPT) in sympatry. We show that the positions of pollen placement and receipt are determined by anther and style exsertion lengths. Using field experiments, we demonstrate that heterospecific species experience high IPT if they have similar style lengths. In contrast, heterospecific species with greater style length differences experience less IPT. Using crosses, we show that IPT has negative consequences on seed set. In combination, these results suggest that character displacement in style length is likely to reduce IPT and increase female fitness in sympatry. Patterns of style length variation across twenty-nine different <i>Pelargonium</i> communities suggest that character displacement has occurred in multiple communities. Furthermore, analyses using a wide-ranging species pair show that style lengths are more different between sympatric populations than they are between allopatric populations. In addition to pollinators as agents of floral divergence, this study suggests that variation in <i>Pelargonium</i> community structure has driven style length variation through character displacement.Interactions between plant community members are an underexplored driver of angiosperm floral variation. We investigate character displacement as a potential contributor to floral variation in <i>Pelargonium</i> communities. Pelargoniums all place pollen on the ventral sides of their pollinators, potentially leading to interspecific pollen transfer (IPT) in sympatry. We show that the positions of pollen placement and receipt are determined by anther and style exsertion lengths. Using field experiments, we demonstrate that heterospecific species experience high IPT if they have similar style lengths. In contrast, heterospecific species with greater style length differences experience less IPT. Using crosses, we show that IPT has negative consequences on seed set. In combination, these results suggest that character displacement in style length is likely to reduce IPT and increase female fitness in sympatry. Patterns of style length variation across twenty-nine different <i>Pelargonium</i> communities suggest that character displacement has occurred in multiple communities. Furthermore, analyses using a wide-ranging species pair show that style lengths are more different between sympatric populations than they are between allopatric populations. In addition to pollinators as agents of floral divergence, this study suggests that variation in <i>Pelargonium</i> community structure has driven style length variation through character displacement.</span></p>
Data from: A Bayesian approach for inferring the impact of a discrete character on rates of continuous-character evolution in the presence of background-rate variation
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Data from: On the Mkv model with among-character rate variation
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Character displacement drives floral variation in Pelargonium (Geraniaceae) communities
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FIGURE 6. Correlation between characters 4–5 and 1–6 in Quantitative analysis of interspecific and ontogenetic variation in Osteoglossum species (Teleostei: Osteoglossiformes: Osteoglossidae)
FIGURE 6. Correlation between characters 4–5 and 1–6, including all size classes of Osteoglossum species. Numbers represent species and classes, where, 1= postembryos and juveniles of O. ferreirai; 2= adults of O. ferreirai; 3= postembryos and juveniles of O. bicirrhosum; 4= adults of O. bicirrhosum.
FIGURE 4. Correlation between characters 13–14 and 1–2 in Quantitative analysis of interspecific and ontogenetic variation in Osteoglossum species (Teleostei: Osteoglossiformes: Osteoglossidae)
FIGURE 4. Correlation between characters 13–14 and 1–2, including all size classes of Osteoglossum species. Numbers represent species and classes, where, 1= postembryos and juveniles of O. ferreirai; 2= adults of O. ferreirai; 3= postembryos and juveniles of O. bicirrhosum; 4= adults of O. bicirrhosum.
FIGURES 15–23. Morphological character variation within P. c a m b o u e i. Figs 15–17 in Revision of the Pachycondyla wasmannii - group (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) from the Malagasy region
FIGURES 15–23. Morphological character variation within P. c a m b o u e i. Figs 15–17: Head in profile showing the shape of the occipital corner. Fig. 15: Normally rounded in form 1; Fig. 16: Protruding as a lobe in form 2; Fig. 17: Hornlike extension in form 3. Figs 18–19: Mesosoma in lateral view showing hairs on propodeal dorsum. Fig. 18: Hairs present in form 1; Fig. 19: Hairs absent in form 4. Figs 20–21: Anterodorsal angles of pronotum. Fig. 20: Bidentate in form 5; Fig. 21: Smoothly rounded in form 6. Figs 22–23: Sculpture and pubescence on fourth abdominal tergite. Fig. 22: Smooth and shiny between large punctures and pubescence absent (form 1); Fig. 23: With closely-spaced small punctures between large punctures and abundant pubescence (form 6).
FIGURE 4 in Well, what about intraspecific variation? Taxonomic and phylogenetic characters in the genus Synoeca de Saussure (Hymenoptera, Vespidae)
FIGURE 4. Cladogram resulting from exact analysis of the data in Table 1. Character numbers are above hashmarks; state changes are shown below, with the respective primitive and derived conditions separated by a ">". Black hashmarks denote uncontroverted changes while open hashmarks indicate homoplastic steps.
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International Brain Laboratory public data
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OpenNeuro
OpenNeuro is a free, open platform for sharing neuroimaging datasets, with public search, dataset pages, and download paths for web, S3, DataLad, and the OpenNeuro CLI.