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Fig. 1 in Why tyrannosaurid forelimbs were so short: An integrative hypothesis

Fig. 1. The mounted skeleton of Tyrannosaurus rex Osborn, 1905, in the atrium of the Valley Life Sciences Building at the University of California, Berkeley based mainly on the relatively complete skeleton in the Museum of the Rockies (MOR 555), collected from the latest Cretaceous Hell Creek Formation of Montana, USA. Courtesy University of California Museum of Paleontology and the Regents of the University of California. For details see text.

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Supplementary Information for Biogeography a key influence on distal forelimb variation in horses through the Cenozoic

Locomotion in terrestrial tetrapods is reliant on interactions between distal limb bones (e.g. metapodials and phalanges). The metapodial-phalangeal joint in horse (Equidae) limbs is highly specialised, facilitating vital functions (shock absorption; elastic recoil). While joint shape has changed throughout horse evolution, potential drivers of these modifications have not been quantitatively assessed. Here, I examine the morphology of the forelimb metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joint of horses and their extinct kin (palaeotheres) using geometric morphometrics and disparity analyses, within a phylogenetic context. I also develop a novel alignment protocol that explores magnitude of shape change through time, correlated against body mass and diet. MCP shape was poorly correlated with mass or diet proxies, although significant temporal correlations were detected at 0–1 Ma intervals. A clear division was recovered between New and Old World hipparionin MCP morphologies. Significant changes in MCP disparity and high rates of shape divergence were observed during the Great American Biotic Interchange, with the MCP joint becoming broad and robust in two separate monodactyl lineages, possibly exhibiting novel locomotor behaviour. This large scale study of MCP joint shape demonstrates the apparent capacity for horses to rapidly change their distal limb morphology to overcome discrete locomotor challenges in new habitats.

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FIGURE 3 in Forelimb motion and orientation in the ornithischian dinosaurs Styracosaurus and Thescelosaurus, and its implications for locomotion and other behavior

FIGURE 3. Stratigraphic distribution of ornithopod and basal ornithischian ichnogenera (after Lockley et al., 2003, 2009; Stanford et al., 2004; Díaz-Martínez et al., 2015; Salisbury et al., 2016), with time-calibrated phylogeny of Ornithopoda (after McDonald, 2012; Dieudonné et al., 2020; Kobayashi et al., 2021). Blue parts of the cladogram and blue manus and pes prints indicate taxa and ichnotaxa with manus enclosed in a mitten-like sheath of soft tissue. Striped blue and black on the cladogram indicates uncertainty: known fossils don't include enough of the manus to determine whether the fingers were enclosed in a mitten-like sheath of soft tissue. The unnamed tracks from Spain are those described by Pérez-Lorente et al. (1997).

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FIGURE 1 in Forelimb motion and orientation in the ornithischian dinosaurs Styracosaurus and Thescelosaurus, and its implications for locomotion and other behavior

FIGURE 1. Right pectoral girdle and forelimb bones of the holotype of Styracosaurus albertensis (CMN 344) and motion at the shoulder. A. Right scapula and coracoid in lateral view. B–D. Humerus in lateral (B), posterior (C), and anterior (D) views, with broken white line indicating edge of humeral head. E–F. Radius and ulna in proximal (E) and distal (F) views. G. Range of parasagittal motion at the shoulder in lateral view. H. Range of motion at the shoulder in dorsal view. I. Range of transverse motion at the shoulder in anterior view, with radius and ulna included; the broken line indicates the humerus in the approximate position of full elevation through the transverse plane, and the unbroken line indicates the humerus in the position that was used for photographing it in position 3. J. Range of parasagittal and transverse motion at the shoulder in lateral view, with radius and ulna included. K–M. Fleshed out reconstructions of S. albertensis in anterior view in habitual posture for standing and locomotion (K), in anterior view with forelimbs in sprawling posture (L), and in lateral view with forelimbs in habitual posture for standing and locomotion (M). 1 – 3, positions 1 – 3 (see Materials and Methods for description), c, coracoid; g, glenoid cavity; h, humerus; hh, humeral head; r, radius; s, scapula; u, ulna.

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FIGURE 2 in Forelimb motion and orientation in the ornithischian dinosaurs Styracosaurus and Thescelosaurus, and its implications for locomotion and other behavior

FIGURE 2. Right pectoral girdle and forelimb bones of Thescelosaurus sp. (NCSM 15728) and motion at the shoulder. A. Right scapulocoracoid in lateral view. B–D. Humerus in lateral (B), posterior (C), and anterior (D) views, with broken white line indicating edge of humeral head. E–F. Radius and ulna in proximal (E) and medial (F) views. G. Motion at the shoulder in lateral view. H. Transverse motion at the shoulder in anterior view. I–J, Skeletons of Thescelosaurus sp. NCSM 15728 (I) and CMN 8537 (J), showing that the curvature of the anterior dorsal vertebrae positions the forelimb such that it can reach the ground when the sacrum is horizontal. K, Tracing of several of the bones of CMN 8537 (vertebral centra, femur, tibia + fibula + proximal tarsals, metatarsus + distal tarsal, scapulocoracoid, humerus, radius + ulna, and carpus + metacarpus), with corrections of the dislocations at the hip and posterior dorsum in the preserved skeleton, and with heavy lines representing the long axis of the sacrum and the surface of the ground, showing that the forelimb can reach the ground and can also be retracted to avoid the ground during bipedal locomotion. L, Fleshed-out reconstruction of Thescelosaurus sp. posed as in K. 1–3, positions 1–3 (see Materials and Methods for description), c, coracoid; ca, carpals; g, glenoid cavity; h, humerus; hh, humeral head; r, radius; s, scapula; u, ulna.

Fig. 6 in Functional morphology and biomechanics of the cynodont Trucidocynodon riograndensis from the Triassic of Southern Brazil: Pectoral girdle and forelimb

Fig. 6. Movements in the left shoulder and elbow of Trucidocynodon riograndensis. Maximal (A) and minimal (B) humeral adduction, in dorsal view; humeral protraction in lateral view (C), humeral rotation in anterior view (D); elbow flexion in lateral view (E), medial translation of ulna during elbow flexion in anterior view (F). Darker shaded steps, in E and F the radius was not figured.

Fig. 5 in Functional morphology and biomechanics of the cynodont Trucidocynodon riograndensis from the Triassic of Southern Brazil: Pectoral girdle and forelimb

Fig. 5. Movements in the pectoral girdle of Trucidocynodon riograndensis. Right clavicle/interclavicle articulation, in ventral view, front upward (A); right clavicle/scapulocoracoid articulation, in dorsal (B), anterior (C), and lateral (D) views.

Fig. 4 in Functional morphology and biomechanics of the cynodont Trucidocynodon riograndensis from the Triassic of Southern Brazil: Pectoral girdle and forelimb

Fig. 4. Muscular reconstruction of pectoral region and forelimb of Trucidocynodon riograndensis in lateral (A) and ventral (B) views (only the muscles discussed in the text are labeled).

Fig. 2 in Functional morphology and biomechanics of the cynodont Trucidocynodon riograndensis from the Triassic of Southern Brazil: Pectoral girdle and forelimb

Fig. 2. The holotype of the non-mammalian cynodont Trucidocynodon riograndensis Oliveira, Soares, and Schultz, 2010 (UFRGS PV-1051-T) from Carnian (Upper Triassic) of Agudo municipality, state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.

Fig. 1. A in Functional morphology and biomechanics of the cynodont Trucidocynodon riograndensis from the Triassic of Southern Brazil: Pectoral girdle and forelimb

Fig. 1. A. Map of South America with the state of Rio Grande do Sul shaded. B. Location of the Agudo municipality (arrow) in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, where Middle and Upper Triassic rocks crop out. C. Sequence stratigraphy of Brazilian rocks containing Triassic vertebrates, with the Hyperodapedon Assemblage Zone highlighted (modified from Horn et al. 2014).

Fig. 3 in Functional morphology and biomechanics of the cynodont Trucidocynodon riograndensis from the Triassic of Southern Brazil: Pectoral girdle and forelimb

Fig. 3. Pectoral appendicular skeleton of non-mammalian cynodont Trucidocynodon riograndensis Oliveira, Soares, and Schultz, 2010 (UFRGS PV- 1051-T) from Carnian (Upper Triassic) of Agudo municipality, state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. A–D. Pectoral girdle; right scapulocoracoid in lateral A) and ventral (D) views; right clavicle in dorsal view (C); interclavicle in ventral view (B). E–J. Forelimb; left humerus in anterior (E) and posterior F) views (F1, photograph; F2, interpretation of the attachment areas of some muscles); right ulna (G) and right radius (H) in lateral view; right hand in dorsal view (I). J. Reconstruction of the hand in dorsal (J1) and lateral (J2) views (gray-shaded bones were not preserved; the black bar in J2 represents the potential orientation of the forearm bones).

Fig. 7 in Functional morphology and biomechanics of the cynodont Trucidocynodon riograndensis from the Triassic of Southern Brazil: Pectoral girdle and forelimb

Fig. 7. Locomotory cycle of the right forelimb of Trucidocynodon riograndensis, in lateral (A) and anterior (B) views. The cycle begins with the leftmost image and its phases are those described in the text.

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FIGURE 6. Crocuta spelaea forelimb remains from Los Aprendices. 1 in Pleistocene cave hyenas in the Iberian Peninsula: New insights from Los Aprendices cave (Moncayo, Zaragoza

FIGURE 6. Crocuta spelaea forelimb remains from Los Aprendices. 1, left scapula in dorsal view (MPZ 2014/584). 2, left humerus in cranial view (MPZ 2014/672). 3, right radius in palmar view (MPZ 2014/611). 4, left ulna in medial view (MPZ 2014/610). 5, right ulna in medial view (MPZ 2014/676). 6, right Mtc V in dorsal view (MPZ 2014/618). 7, right Mtc IV in dorsal view (MPZ 2014/617). 8, right Mtc III in dorsal view (MPZ 2014/616), 9, right Mtc II in dorsal view (MPZ 2014/615). 9, left Mtc II in dorsal view (MPZ 2014/685). 10, left Mtc III in dorsal view (MPZ 2014/684). 11, left Mtc IV in dorsal view (MPZ 2014/ 581). 12, left Mtc V in dorsal view (MPZ 2014/575). 13, right scapholunate in proximal view (MPZ 2014/613). 14, right pisiform in proximal view (MPZ 2014/614). 15, trapezoid (MPZ 2014/619). 16, right cuneiform in dorsal view (MPZ 2014/659). 17, unciform (MPZ 2014/678) 18-26, first phalanx in dorsal view (MPZ 2014/576, 577, 578, 583, 621, 622, 626, 631). 27-34, second phalanx in lateral view (MPZ 2014/594, 599, 600, 601, 627, 639, 654, 655). 35-37, third phalanx in dorsal vier (MPZ 2014/590, 603, 680).

FIG. 5 in Variations on a bauplan: description of a new Malagasy "mermaid skink" with flipper-like forelimbs only (Scincidae, Sirenoscincus Sakata & Hikida, 2003)

FIG. 5. — Computed tomographic reconstruction of the skull of the holotype specimen Sirenoscincus mobydick n. sp. (UADBA R70487) with the sclerotic rings coloured in green, in lateral (A) and dorsal (C) views. B represents the ossicles in the sclerotic ring, redrawn from A.

FIG. 6. — A, B in Variations on a bauplan: description of a new Malagasy "mermaid skink" with flipper-like forelimbs only (Scincidae, Sirenoscincus Sakata & Hikida, 2003)

FIG. 6. — A, B, drawings of the lateral and dorsal views of the holotype of Sirenoscincus yamagishii Sakata & Hikida, 2003 (holotype specimen KUZ R50922); C, D, the only northern species of Voeltzkowia Boettger, 1893, V. mira Boettger, 1893 (ZSM 867/0); E, F, one member of the southern group, V. lineata (Mocquard, 1901) (ZSM 1624/2010 = ZCMV 12845). A and B have been redrawn after Sakata & Hikida (2003a). E is symmetrically reversed, thus representing the right side. Scale bars: 1 mm (not shown for A and B because not indicated in the original figure).

FIG. 2 in Variations on a bauplan: description of a new Malagasy "mermaid skink" with flipper-like forelimbs only (Scincidae, Sirenoscincus Sakata & Hikida, 2003)

FIG. 2. — Drawings of the holotype of Sirenoscincus mobydick n. sp. (UADBA R70487): A-C, dorsal (A), ventral (B) and lateral (C) views of the head; D, close-up of the arm (picture symmetrically reversed, thus representing the right forelimb). The colouration in life has been presently inferred from both the preserved specimen and the supposedly identical living colouration of S.yamagishii. Scale bars: 1 mm.

FIG. 1 in Variations on a bauplan: description of a new Malagasy "mermaid skink" with flipper-like forelimbs only (Scincidae, Sirenoscincus Sakata & Hikida, 2003)

FIG. 1. — Sirenoscincus Sakata & Hikida, 2003: A-D, S. mobydick n. sp., preserved holotype UADBA R70487, lateral view of the entire specimen (A), lateral (B) and ventral (C) views of the anterior body part, showing highly reduced flipper-like forelimbs, and close-up of the forelimb (D); the constriction of the body posterior to the forelimbs is an artefact of the fastening of the collection label; E-G, living specimen of S. yamagishii Sakata & Hikida, 2003 from Ankarafantsika, Madagascar, lateral view of the anterior body part (E), dorsolateral view of the entire specimen (F), and close-up of the right forelimb with four claws (G). Scale bars: 1 mm (not shown for S. yamagishii because unavailable). (Photographs E-G: Falk S. Eckhardt.)

FIG. 4 in Variations on a bauplan: description of a new Malagasy "mermaid skink" with flipper-like forelimbs only (Scincidae, Sirenoscincus Sakata & Hikida, 2003)

FIG. 4. — Computed tomographic reconstruction of the pectoral girdle and forelimbs of the holotype specimen of Sirenoscincus mobydick n. sp. (UADBA R70487) in lateral (A) and dorsal (B) views; pectoral girdle in lateral (C) and dorsal (D) views. Scale bar: 1 mm.

FIG. 3 in Variations on a bauplan: description of a new Malagasy "mermaid skink" with flipper-like forelimbs only (Scincidae, Sirenoscincus Sakata & Hikida, 2003)

FIG. 3. — Computed tomographic reconstruction of the anterior body part of the holotype specimen of Sirenoscincus mobydick n. sp. (UADBA R70487) in dorsal (A, C) and lateral views (B, D). The osteodermic "chain mail" is represented in red in A and B, and digitally removed from C and D. Scale bars: 0.5 mm.