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396 results for “genetic adaptation”
Resources from: Disparate patterns of genetic divergence in three widespread corals across a pan-pacific environmental gradient highlights species-specific adaptation trajectories
<p>The following files are contained in this repository:</p> <p><br> README.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov4.txt - This document.</p> <p>scripts.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov4.pdf - Contains the scripts, or locations of the scripts, used to conduct the data analyses detailed in the associated manuscript.</p> <p>acknowledgements_local_authorities.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov1.pdf - Acknowledgements of local authorities for the collection of samples used in the associated study.</p> <p>TaraPacific_SST_timeseries_mean_productsV2mai2021.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov1.csv - The historical temperature data set used for the RDA, Mantel tests and gradient Forest analysis.</p> <p>Pocillopora_meandrina_v3_11Islands.raw.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov2.vcf.genozip - The Pocillopora SNPs referred to as 'raw' in the Methods of the associated manuscript. Compressed using genozip (https://genozip.readthedocs.io/index.html).</p> <p>Pocillopora_meandrina_v3_11Islands.raw.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov2.vcf.genozip.md5 - md5 of the the Pocillopora raw SNPs.</p> <p>Pocillopora_meandrina_v3_11Islands_maf05_minQ30_biallelic_nomiss.linked.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov2.vcf.gz - The Pocillopora SNPs referred to as 'linked' in the Methods of the associated manuscript.</p> <p>Pocillopora_meandrina_v3_11Islands_maf05_minQ30_biallelic_nomiss.linked.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov2.vcf.gz.md5 - md5 of the the Pocillopora linked SNPs.</p> <p>Pocillopora_meandrina_v3_11Islands_maf05_minQ30_biallelic_nomiss_LD02.unlinked.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov2.vcf.gz - The Pocillopora SNPs referred to as 'unlinked' in the Methods of the associated manuscript.</p> <p>Pocillopora_meandrina_v3_11Islands_maf05_minQ30_biallelic_nomiss_LD02.unlinked.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov2.vcf.gz.md5 - md5 of the the Pocillopora unlinked SNPs.</p> <p>Porites_lobata_v3_11Islands.raw.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov2.vcf.genozip - The Pocillopora SNPs referred to as 'raw' in the Methods of the associated manuscript. Compressed using genozip (https://genozip.readthedocs.io/index.html).</p> <p>Porites_lobata_v3_11Islands.raw.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov2.vcf.genozip.md5 - md5 of the the Pocillopora raw SNPs.</p> <p>Porites_lobata_v3_11Islands_maf05_minQ30_biallelic_nomiss.linked.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov2.vcf.gz - The Pocillopora SNPs referred to as 'linked' in the Methods of the associated manuscript.</p> <p>Porites_lobata_v3_11Islands_maf05_minQ30_biallelic_nomiss.linked.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov2.vcf.gz.md5 - md5 of the the Pocillopora linked SNPs.</p> <p>Porites_lobata_v3_11Islands_maf05_minQ30_biallelic_nomiss_LD02.unlinked.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov2.vcf.gz - The Pocillopora SNPs referred to as 'unlinked' in the Methods of the associated manuscript.</p> <p>Porites_lobata_v3_11Islands_maf05_minQ30_biallelic_nomiss_LD02.unlinked.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov2.vcf.gz.md5 - md5 of the the Pocillopora unlinked SNPs.</p> <p>PANAMA2021.raw.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov2.vcf.gz - The Millepora SNPs referred to as 'raw' in the Methods of the associated manuscript.</p> <p>PANAMA2021.raw.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov2.vcf.gz.md5 - md5 of the the Millepora raw SNPs.</p> <p>Millepora_REF_orthologue_genes.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov2.csv - The Millepora gene list referred to as 'target genes' in the Methods of the associated manuscript.</p> <p>Mil_transcriptom.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov2.fa.gz - The Millepora de novo assembled transcriptome.</p> <p>Mil_transcriptom.Hume_et_al_2022.zenodov2.fa.gz.md5 - md5 of the Millepora de novo assembled transcriptome.</p> <p> </p> <p>mtORF Phylogeny</p> <p>TP-Johnston_mtORF-Pocillo.fa = all sequences</p> <p>TP-Johnston_mtORF-Pocillo.mafft.fa = mafft alignment</p> <p>TP-Johnston_mtORF-Pocillo.mafft.ML.nwk = ML tree newick</p> <p> </p> <p>Hellberg genotype network Porites</p> <p>TP-Hellberg_MM32-Porites.nex = all aligned sequences for this locus with indels encoded</p> <p>TP-Hellberg_MM100-Porites.nex = all aligned sequences for this locus with indels encoded</p> <p>TP-Hellberg_ATPaseB.nex = all aligned sequences for this locus with indels encoded,</p> <p>TP-Hellberg_POFAD.nex = POFAD multilocus genotypic distance,</p> <p>TP-Hellberg_Splitstree.nex= Multilocus genotype network in nexus format</p> <p><br> Gradient Forest Analysis</p> <p>Poc_abund.csv - Pocillopora SSH Occurrences per Site er Island</p> <p>Por_abund.csv - Porites SSH Occurrences per Site er Island</p> <p>mean_depth_por.csv - per site per island mean depth among Porites colonies</p> <p>mean_depth_poc.csv - per site per island mean depth among Pocillopora colonies</p>
Data from Neutral genetic structuring of pathogen populations during rapid adaptation
<p><strong>Datasets and temporary dataframes relating to the article "Neutral genetic structuring of pathogen populations during rapid adaptation".</strong></p> <p>These datasets and temporary dataframes are necessary to run the scripts from the public GitLab repository: <a href="https://gitlab.com/saubin.meline/neutral-genetic-structuring-adaptation">https://gitlab.com/saubin.meline/neutral-genetic-structuring-adaptation</a>. Please refer to this public GitLab repository for the latest version of the codes and to perform all analyses presented in the article.</p> <p>Original datasets from the demogenetic model:</p> <ul> <li>Output_RandomDesign.txt</li> <li>Output_RegularDesign_With_host_alternation.txt</li> <li>Output_RegularDesign_Without_host_alternation.txt</li> <li>Output_RandomDesign_Mnull_Medoid_With_host_alternation.txt</li> <li>Output_RandomDesign_Mnull_Medoid_Without_host_alternation.txt</li> </ul> <p>All remaining files correspond to temporary dataframes generated by the scripts in the GitLab repository, provided here for reproducibility of the results and to save time at certain time-consuming scripts.</p>
Data from: Association genetics of growth and adaptive traits in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) using whole-exome-discovered polymorphisms
In the United States, forest genetics research began over 100 years ago and loblolly pine breeding programs were established in the 1950s. However, the genetics underlying complex traits of loblolly pine remains to be discovered. To address this, adaptive and growth traits were measured and analyzed in a clonally tested loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) population. Over 2.8 million single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers detected from exome sequencing were used to test for single locus associations, SNP-SNP interactions and correlation of individual heterozygosity with phenotypic traits. A total of 36 SNP-trait associations were found for specific leaf area (5 SNPs), branch angle (2), crown width (3), stem diameter (4), total height (9), carbon isotope discrimination (4), nitrogen concentration (2), and pitch canker resistance traits (7). Eleven SNP-SNP interactions were found to be associated with branch angle (1 SNP-SNP interaction), crown width (2), total height (2), carbon isotope discrimination (2), nitrogen concentration (1), and pitch canker resistance (3). Non-additive effects imposed by dominance and epistasis account for a large fraction of the genetic variance for the quantitative traits. Genes that contain the identified SNPs have a wide spectrum of functions. Individual heterozygosity positively correlated with water use efficiency and nitrogen concentration. In conclusion, multiple effects identified in this study influence the performance of loblolly pines, provide resources for understanding the genetic control of complex traits, and have potential value for assessing with breeding through marker assisted selection and genomic selection.
Data from: Adaptive genetic variation distinguishes Chilean blue mussels (Mytilus chilensis) from different marine environments
Chilean mussel populations have been thought to be panmictic with limited genetic structure. Genotyping-by-sequencing approaches have enabled investigation of genome-wide variation that may better distinguish populations that have evolved in different environments. We investigated neutral and adaptive genetic variation in Mytilus from six locations in southern Chile with 1,240 SNP obtained with RAD-seq. Differentiation among locations with 891 neutral SNPs was low (FST = 0.005). Higher differentiation was obtained with a panel of 58 putative outlier SNPs (FST = 0.114) indicating the potential for local adaptation. This panel identified clusters of genetically related individuals and demonstrated that much of the differentiation (~92%) could be attributed to the three major regions and environments: extreme conditions in Patagonia, inner bay influenced by aquaculture (Reloncaví́), and outer bay (Chiloé Island). Patagonia samples were most distinct, but additional analysis carried out excluding this collection also revealed adaptive divergence between inner and outer bay samples. The four locations within Reloncaví́ area were most similar with all panels of markers, likely due to similar environments, high gene flow by aquaculture practices and low geographic distance. However, fine scale structure could be detected when analyses included only this zone. Our results and the SNP markers developed will be a powerful tool supporting management and programs of this harvested species.
Environmental effects on genetic variance are likely to constrain adaptation in novel environments
<p>Adaptive plasticity allows populations to cope with environmental variation but is expected to fail as conditions become unfamiliar. In novel conditions, populations may instead rely on rapid adaptation to increase fitness and avoid extinction. Adaptation should be fastest when both plasticity and selection occur in directions of the multivariate phenotype that contain abundant genetic variation. However, tests of this prediction from field experiments are rare. Here, we quantify how additive genetic variance in a multivariate phenotype changes across an elevational gradient, and test whether plasticity and selection align with genetic variation. We do so using two closely related, but ecologically distinct, sister species of Sicilian daisy (Senecio, Asteraceae) adapted to high and low elevations on Mount Etna. Using a paternal half-sibling breeding design, we generated and then reciprocally planted c.19,000 seeds of both species, across an elevational gradient spanning each species' native elevation, and then quantified mortality and five leaf traits of emergent seedlings. We found that genetic variance in leaf traits changed more across elevations than between species. The high-elevation species at novel lower elevations showed changes in the distribution of genetic variance among the leaf traits, which reduced the amount of genetic variance in the directions of selection and the native phenotype. By contrast, the low-elevation species mainly showed changes in the amount of genetic variance at the novel high elevation, and genetic variance was concentrated in the direction of the native phenotype. For both species, leaf trait plasticity across elevations was in a direction of the multivariate phenotype that contained a moderate amount of genetic variance. Together, these data suggest that where plasticity is adaptive, selection on genetic variance for an initially plastic response could promote adaptation. However, large environmental effects on genetic variance are likely to reduce adaptive potential in novel environments.</p>
A lack of genetic diversity and minimal adaptive evolutionary divergence in introduced Mysis shrimp after 50 years
<p>The successes of introduced populations in novel habitats often provide powerful examples of evolution and adaptation. In the 1950's, opossum shrimp (<em>Mysis diluviana</em>) individuals from Clearwater Lake in Minnesota, USA were transported and introduced to Twin Lakes in Colorado, USA by fisheries managers to supplement food sources for trout. Shrimp were subsequently introduced from Twin Lakes into numerous lakes throughout Colorado. Because managers kept detailed records of the timing of the introductions, we had the opportunity to test for evolutionary divergence within a known time interval. Here, we used reduced representation genomic data to investigate patterns of genetic diversity and test for genetic divergence between populations and for evidence of adaptive evolution within the introduced populations in Colorado. We found overall very low levels of genetic diversity across all populations, with evidence for some genetic divergence between the Minnesota source population and the introduced populations in Colorado. There was also little differentiation among the Colorado populations, consistent with the known provenance of a single founding population, with the exception of the population from Gross Reservoir, Colorado. Demographic modeling suggests that the population in Gross Reservoir is of hybrid origin, with an earlier founding population from an unknown source being later supplemented from another population. Despite the overall low genetic diversity we observed, F<sub>ST</sub> outlier and environmental association analyses identified multiple loci exhibiting signatures of selection and adaptive variation related to elevation and lake depth. The success of introduced species is thought to be limited by genetic variation, but our results imply that populations with limited genetic variation can become established in a wide range of novel environments.</p>
Naked mole rats have distinctive cardiometabolic and genetic adaptations to their underground low-oxygen lifestyles (non-genetic data)
<p>The naked mole-rat <em>Heterocephalus glaber</em> is a eusocial mammal exhibiting extreme longevity (37-year lifespan), extraordinary resistance to hypoxia and absence of cardiovascular disease. To identify the mechanisms behind these exceptional traits, metabolomics and RNAseq of cardiac tissue from naked mole-rats were compared to other African mole-rat genera. We identified metabolic and genetic adaptations unique to naked mole-rats including elevated glycogen, thus enabling glycolytic ATP generation during cardiac ischemia. Elevated normoxic expression of HIF-1α was observed while downstream hypoxia-responsive genes were down-regulated, suggesting adaptation to low-oxygen environments. Naked mole-rat hearts showed reduced succinate build-up during ischemia and negligible tissue damage following ischemia-reperfusion injury. These adaptive evolutionary traits reflect a unique hypoxic and eusocial lifestyle that collectively may contribute to their longevity and health span.</p>
Genetic background and thermal regime influence adaptation to novel environment in the seed beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus
<p>Climate change is associated with the increase in both mean and variability of thermal conditions. Therefore, the use of more realistic fluctuating thermal regimes is the most appropriate laboratory method for predicting population responses to thermal heterogeneity. However, the long- and short-term implications of evolving under such conditions are not well understood. Here, we examined differences in key life history traits among populations of seed beetles (<em>Callosobruchus</em> <em>maculatus</em>) that evolved under either constant control conditions or in an environment with fluctuating daily temperatures. Specifically, individuals from two distinct genetic backgrounds were kept for 19 generations at one of two temperatures, a constant temperature (T=29°C) or a fluctuating daily cycle (T<sub>mean</sub>=33°C, T<sub>max</sub>=40°C, and T<sub>min</sub>=26°C), and were assayed either in their evolved environment or in the other environment. We found that beetles that evolved in fluctuating environments but were then switched to constant 29°C conditions had far greater lifetime reproductive success compared to beetles that were kept in their evolved environments. This increase in reproductive success suggests that beetles raised in fluctuating environments may have evolved greater thermal breadth than control condition beetles. In addition, the degree of sexual dimorphism in body size and development varied as a function of genetic background, evolved thermal environment, and current temperature conditions. These results highlight not only the value of incorporating diel fluctuations into climate research but also suggest that populations that experience variability in temperature may be better able to respond to both short- and long-term changes in environmental conditions.</p>
On the genetic architecture of rapidly adapting and convergent life history traits in guppies
<p>The genetic basis of traits shapes and constrains how adaptation proceeds in nature; rapid adaptation can be facilitated by polygenic traits, which subsequently provide multiple, redundant, genetic routes to adaptive phenotypes, reducing re-use of the same genes (genetic convergence). Guppy life history traits evolve rapidly and convergently among natural high- (HP) and low-predation (LP) environments in northern Trinidad. This system has been studied extensively at the phenotypic level, but little is known about the underlying genetic architecture. Here, we use an F2 QTL design to examine the genetic basis of seven (five female, two male) guppy life history phenotypes to assess whether the genetic architecture of these traits reflects theoretical predictions. We use RAD-sequencing data (16,539 SNPs) from 370 male and 267 female F2 individuals. We perform linkage mapping, estimates of genome-wide and per-chromosome heritability (multi-locus associations), and QTL ma pping (single-locus associations). Our results are consistent with architectures of many-loci of small effect for male age and size at maturity and female interbrood period. Male trait associations are clustered on specific chromosomes, but female interbrood period exhibits a weak genome-wide signal suggesting a potentially highly polygenic component. Offspring weight and female size at maturity are also associated with a single significant QTL each. These results suggest rapid phenotypic evolution of guppies may be facilitated by polygenic trait architectures, but these could fuel redundancy and limit gene re-use across populations, in agreement with an absence of strong signatures of genetic convergence from recent population genomic analyses of wild HP-LP guppies.</p>
Habitat-linked genetic variation supports microgeographic adaptive divergence in an island-endemic bird species
<p>We present evidence for and investigate potential mechanisms driving habitat-linked genetic divergence within a bird species endemic to a single 250 km<sup>2</sup> island. The island scrub-jay (<em>Aphelocoma insularis</em>) exhibits microgeographic divergence in bill morphology across pine-oak ecotones on Santa Cruz Island, California (USA) similar to adaptive differences described in mainland congeners over much larger geographic scales. To test whether individuals exhibit genetic differentiation related to habitat type and divergence in bill length, we genotyped over 3,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 123 adult island scrub-jay males from across Santa Cruz Island using restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RADseq). Neutral landscape genomic analyses revealed that genome-wide genetic differentiation was primarily related to geographic distance and differences in habitat composition. We also found 168 putatively adaptive loci associated with habitat type using multivariate redundancy analysis (RDA) while controlling for spatial effects. Finally, two genome-wide association analyses revealed a polygenic basis to variation in bill length with multiple loci detected in or near genes known to affect bill morphology in other birds. Our findings support the hypothesis that divergent selection at microgeographic scales can cause adaptive divergence in the presence of ongoing gene flow.</p>
Genetic architecture of adaptive radiation across two trophic levels
<p>Evolution of trophic diversity is a hallmark of adaptive radiation. Yet, transitions between carnivory and herbivory are rare in young adaptive radiations. Haplochromine cichlid fish of the African Great Lakes are exceptional in this regard. Lake Victoria was colonized by an insectivorous generalist and in less than 20,000 years, several clades of specialized herbivores evolved. Carnivorous versus herbivorous lifestyles in cichlids require many different adaptations in functional morphology, physiology, and behaviour. Ecological transitions in either direction thus require many traits to change in a concerted fashion, which could be facilitated if genomic regions underlying these traits were physically linked or pleiotropic. However, linkage/pleiotropy could also constrain evolvability. To investigate components of the genetic architecture of a suite of traits that distinguish invertivores from algae scrapers, we performed Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL) mapping using a second-generation hybrid cross. While we found indications of linkage/pleiotropy within trait complexes, QTLs for distinct traits were distributed across several unlinked genomic regions. Thus, a mixture of independently segregating variation and some pleiotropy may underpin the rapid trophic transitions. We argue that the emergence and maintenance of associations between the different genomic regions underpinning co-adapted traits that evolved and persist against some gene flow required reproductive isolation.</p>
Pollinator loss causes rapid adaptive evolution of selfing and dramatically reduces genome-wide genetic variability
<p>While selfing populations harbor little genetic variation limiting evolutionary potential, the causes are unclear. We experimentally evolved large, replicate populations of <em>Mimulus guttatus </em>for nine generations in greenhouses with or without pollinating bees and studied DNA polymorphism in descendants. Populations without bees adapted to produce more selfed seed yet exhibited striking reductions in DNA polymorphism despite large population sizes. Importantly, the genome-wide pattern of variation cannot be explained by a simple reduction in effective population size, but instead reflects the complicated interaction between selection, linkage, and inbreeding. Simulations demonstrate that the spread of favored alleles at few loci depresses neutral variation genome-wide in large populations containing fully selfing lineages. It also generates greater heterogeneity among chromosomes than expected with neutral evolution in small populations. Genome-wide deviations from neutrality were documented in populations with bees, suggesting widespread influences of background selection. After applying outlier tests to detect loci under selection, two genome regions were found in populations with bees, yet no adaptive loci were otherwise mapped. Large amounts of stochastic change in selfing populations compromise evolutionary potential and undermine outlier tests for selection. This occurs because genetic draft in highly selfing populations makes even the largest changes in allele frequency unremarkable.</p>
Data from: Inversion Invasions: when the genetic basis of local adaptation is concentrated within inversions in the face of gene flow
<p><span></span></p> <p>Across many species where inversions have been implicated in local adaptation, genomes often evolve to contain multiple, large inversions that arise early in divergence. Why this occurs has yet to be resolved. To address this gap, we built forward-time simulations in which inversions have flexible characteristics and can invade a metapopulation undergoing spatially divergent selection for a highly polygenic trait. In our simulations, inversions typically arose early in divergence, captured standing genetic variation upon mutation, and then accumulated many small-effect loci over time. Under special conditions, inversions could also arise late in adaptation and capture locally adapted alleles. Polygenic inversions behaved similarly to a single supergene of large effect and were detectable by genome scans. Our results show that characteristics of adaptive inversions found in empirical studies (e.g., multiple large, old inversions that are FST outliers, sometimes overlapping with other inversions) are consistent with a highly polygenic architecture, and inversions do not need to contain any large-effect genes to play an important role in local adaptation. By combining a population and quantitative genetic framework, our results give a deeper understanding of the specific conditions needed for inversions to be involved in adaptation when the genetic architecture is polygenic.</p>
Climate adaptation and genetic differentiation in the mosquito species Culex tarsalis
<p>The increasing prevalence of vector-borne diseases around the world highlights the pressing need for an in-depth exploration of the genetic and environmental factors that shape the adaptability and widespread distribution of mosquito populations. This research focuses on <em>Culex tarsalis</em>, a principal vector for various viral diseases including West Nile Virus (WNV). Through the development of a new reference genome and the examination of Restriction-Site Associated DNA sequencing (RAD-seq) data from over 300 individuals and 28 locations, we demonstrate that variables such as temperature, evaporation rates, and the density of vegetation significantly impact the genetic makeup of <em>Cx. tarsalis</em> populations. Among the alleles most strongly associated with environmental factors is a nonsynonymous mutation in a key gene related to circadian rhythms. These results offer new insights into the mechanisms of spread and adaptation in a key North American vector species, which is poised to become a growing health threat to both humans and animals in the face of ongoing climate change.</p>
Fig. 2 in Genetic and morphological differentiation among populations of the narrowly endemic and karst forest-adapted Pilea pteridophylla (Urticaceae)
Fig. 2 Morphological variation among individuals of Pilea pteridophylla sampled along its distribution range in the tropical karst forest of southern Mexico. Plot of individual scores for the first two components of the principal component analysis using morphological data. Coloured symbols represent the two populations recognized for the species: red circles, Tabasco; and blue circles, Chiapas. Ellipses correspond to the 95% confidence intervals estimated for each population. The lines represent the dispersion of the individuals within each population
Fig. 3 in Genetic and morphological differentiation among populations of the narrowly endemic and karst forest-adapted Pilea pteridophylla (Urticaceae)
Fig. 3 Statistical parsimony networks of rps16-trnQ, trnL-trnF and rps16-trnQ + trnL-trnF dataset using the gaps as missing data. Coloured symbols represent the two populations recognized for the species: red circles, Tabasco; and blue circles, Chiapas. Open-white circles represent the number of mutational steps between haplotypes. The size of the circles is proportional to the frequency of each haplo-
Fig. 1 in Genetic and morphological differentiation among populations of the narrowly endemic and karst forest-adapted Pilea pteridophylla (Urticaceae)
Fig. 1 Mountain karst forests of Mexico and the studied species Pilea pteridophylla A. K. Monro (Urticaceae). A Geographic distribution of the Mountain karst forests of Mexico. B Individual from the Chiapas population. C Individual from the Tabasco population
Fig. 4 in Spatial genetic structure in the vulnerable smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata, Mustelidae): towards an adaptive conservation management of the species
Fig. 4. Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) plot (stress: 0.0045) performed using average pairwise TN93 (Tamura & Nei, 1993) distances among investigated Lutrogale perspicillata groups created according to the country of origin of samples (modern + museum DNA and GenBank entries).
Fig. 3. A in Spatial genetic structure in the vulnerable smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata, Mustelidae): towards an adaptive conservation management of the species
Fig. 3. A, Lutrogale perspicillata network computed using haplotypes (h) from the 305 bp-long sequence alignment (modern + museum DNA and GenBank entries). A scale to infer the number of sequences for each pie (i.e., haplotype) was provided together with a length bar to compute the number of mutational changes. The colour of each country and the number of each haplotype are indicated. See Table S1 for more details. B, Mismatch Distributions (MD) of the mtDNA pairwise differences (dotted: observed; line: expected) calculated for South East Asia haplogroup (Fig. 3A). Estimates of FS and R2 statistics (with related P values), r (raggedness index) and the outcome of SSD and SSD* test under a model (H0) of sudden demographic and spatial population expansion, respectively, are provided.
Fig. 2 in Spatial genetic structure in the vulnerable smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata, Mustelidae): towards an adaptive conservation management of the species
Fig. 2. Photos of MNHN-ZM-MO-2001-350, L. p. perspicillata holotype resident in the mammal collection of the National Museum of Natural History of Paris, France. A, right side, lateral view (bar length = 20 cm); B, left forelimb, lateral view; C, basement, in French "Lutra perspicillata = Lutra leptonix Horsf., loutre de Java par m Diard, mai 1821, la tête est au lab d'anatomie", which can be translated into and interpreted as: "Lutra perspicillata = Lutra leptonix (Horsfield, 1824), Java otter from M. Diard, May 1821, skull is in the lab of anatomy" (see also Material and Methods). Photos courtesy and copyright: © MNHN - RECOLNAT - Laura Flamme - 2014.
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