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79 results for “sex allocation”
Disentangling the effects of jasmonate and tissue loss on the sex allocation of an annual plant
<p>In this study, we explored norms of reaction in sex expression and sex allocation to herbivory in an experiment designed to uncouple its direct (through tissue loss) and indirect effects (due to defensive jasmonate signalling) in hermaphroditic XX females of the wind-pollinated Mercurialis annua. To uncouple the direct and indirect effects of herbivory on the sex expression and to test the role of jasmonate on conditional sex allocation, we conducted a two-factorial experiment manipulating tissue loss (25% chronic defoliation) and plant anti-herbivore defences via the jasmonate pathway (external application of jasmonate), and measured sexual expression in plants with both a male and a female function. The herbivory treatment applied were:</p> <p>For the control treatment (C), leaves were sprayed with a sham solution containing only water and polysorbate until all leaves were wet (see Supplementary Materials for detailed solution formulae). The herbivory treatment (H) consisted of cutting off half of every second leaf on the plant with scissors and spraying plants with a sham solution until all leaves were wet (defoliation resulted in a 25% reduction of total leaf area over the course of the whole plant’s lifetime). In the jasmonate treatment (JA) plants were sprayed with a solution of methyl-jasmonate and polysorbate until all leaves were wet (polysorbate 20 was used to fix the methyl-jasmonate on the sprayed leaves). Finally, the jasmonate and herbivory treatment (JAH) consisted of cutting off half of every other leaf on the plant with scissors and spraying plants with the methyl-jasmonate solution until all leaves were wet. These treatments were applied repeatedly as plants continued to grow, i.e., they represent chronic stress or manipulation. The first round of treatment was applied one week after repotting the plants (25th of November 2019) and then every two weeks over the next 12 weeks (the last treatment was applied on the 2<sup>nd</sup> of February 2020). On the first round of treatment, when most plants had fewer than six leaves each, we cut off only half a leaf (~10% of the leaf area removed) for plants under the herbivory treatments to avoid seedlings death.</p> <p>Plant sampling consisted of cutting all above-ground plant material of 34 plants per enclosure (<em>N</em> = 272) and recording total height. Plants were then cut in half, lengthwise, creating two distinct segments: top and bottom. The top segment was carefully examined and we counted the number of fruits (immature and mature) and harvested all male flowers using tweezers. Male flowers were stored in paper envelopes, dried and weighed. After phenotyping, plant segments were dried and weighed to obtain plant dry biomass (top + bottom). To estimate seed production, the seeds were isolated from the dried plant materials, stored in paper envelopes and weighed. All materials were dried in an oven at 50°C for at least 14 days and weighed using a digital scale.</p> <p>Variables names and meaning:</p> <p>PlantID: Individual identifier for each plant<br> nb_seeds_estimate.TOP: Number of seeds form the top section of the plant <br> Biomass.BOTTOM: Dry biomass of the bottom plant section (grams) <br> Total_biomass: Dry biomass of the whole aboveground plant materials, except for the male flowers <br> Biomass.TOP: Dry biomass of the bottom plant section (grams) <br> seed_mass_total: Dry biomass of the seeds of the whole plant (top+bottom sections) (grams)<br> seed_mass.BOTTOM: Dry biomass of the seeds from the bottom section (grams)<br> seed_nb_total: Number of seeds from the whole plant (top+bottom sections) <br> Lenght_section.TOP: Length of the top section (cm) <br> Fruit_number.TOP: Number of fruits present on the top sectioon at the time of harvest<br> nb_seeds_estimate.BOTTOM: Number of seeds from the bottom section<br> Height: Plant height (top+bottom sections) (cm) at the time of harvest<br> Fruit_number.BOTTOM: Number of fruits present on the bottom section at the time of harvest <br> DPT: Days-post-treatment = the period elapsed between the last treatment application and the plant sampling date. For logistical reasons, our sampling was spread over 14 days by a team of six assistants.<br> Lenght_section.BOTTOM: Length of the bottom section (cm)<br> Treatment: Herbivory treatments: C=Control; H= 25% chronic tissue loss, JA=exogenous jasmonate application; JAH=tissue loss + jasmonate.<br> Box: Enclosure in which plants were kept. This was a blocking factor with 2 boxes per treatment, each one with 30-32 plants. <br> Date: sampling date <br> seed_mass.TOP: Dry biomass of the seeds on the bottom plant sections (grams)<br> Observer: Identifier for each of the six researchers who sampled plants. We recorder observer identity and included it in our statistical analyses to account for possible biases among assistants.<br> male_fl_mass.TOP: Dry biomass of the male flowers sampled from the top plant section (grams). <br> nb_fl_estimate.TOP: Number of male flowers present on the top plant section at the time of harvest <br> male_fl_mass.BOTTOM: Dry biomass of the male flowers sampled from the bottom plant section (grams). <br> nb_fl_estimate.BOTTOM: Number of male flowers present on the bottom plant section at the time of harvest </p> <p> </p>
Data and code for: Insect herbivores drive sex allocation in angiosperm flowers
<p><strong>Code and Data for the paper:</strong></p> <p>Insect herbivores drive sex allocation in angiosperm flowers</p> <p><em>Carlos Roberto Fonseca, Martin M. Gossner, Johannes Kollmann, Martin Brändle, Gustavo Brant Paterno</em></p> <p> </p> <p>Content of the repository</p> <ol> <li> <p><strong>Data</strong>: the folder <code>data</code> contains all data required to reproduce analyses, figures and tables.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Outputs</strong>: the folder <code>output</code> contains the figures, tables and temporary files generated.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Code</strong>: the folder <code>scripts</code> contains all scripts (.R) that generated results, figures and tables used in the manuscript and in the supporting information.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Supplementary information</strong>: the folder <code>doc</code> contains the supplementary information associated to the paper.</p> </li> </ol>
Figure 3 in Size-dependent sex allocation in Solanum lycocarpum St. Hil. (Solanaceae)
Figure 3. Proportion of male and hermaphrodite flowers as a function of plant size (small group versus large group).
Figure 2 in Size-dependent sex allocation in Solanum lycocarpum St. Hil. (Solanaceae)
Figure 2. Number of flowers per plant as a function of the plant size. The number of flowers in smaller group (minimum = 0.000; maximum = 36.00; mean = 5; median = 10.6; standard error = 2.54) versus in larger group (minimum = 3.00; maximum = 54.00; mean = 29.00; median = 30.00; standard error = 3.51).
Figure 4 in Size-dependent sex allocation in Solanum lycocarpum St. Hil. (Solanaceae)
Figure 4. Interaction between the floral attributes according to the flowers gender. The circles represent hermaphrodite flowers and the squares represent male flowers. (A) Corolla diameter (cm) versus anther size (cm); (B) Flower Biomass versus anther size (cm).
Figure 1 in Size-dependent sex allocation in Solanum lycocarpum St. Hil. (Solanaceae)
Figure 1. Flowers of Solanum lycocarpum. (A) Hermaphrodite flower; (B) Male flowers. The scale bars units were 3 cm for each picture.
Data from: The effects of parasitism on sex allocation of a hermaphroditic acorn barnacle
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Adult sex-ratio bias does not lead to detectable adaptive offspring sex allocation via nest-site choice in a turtle with temperature-dependent sex determination
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Consequences of population structure for sex allocation and sexual conflict
<p class="Standard">Both sex allocation and sexual conflict can be modulated by spatial structure. However, how the interplay between the type of dispersal and the scale of competition simultaneously affects these traits in sub-divided populations is rarely considered.</p> <p>We investigated sex allocation and sexual conflict evolution in meta-populations of the spider mite <i>Tetranychus urticae</i> evolving under budding (pairing females from the same patch) or random (pairing females from different patches) dispersal and either local (fixed sampling from each subpopulation) or global (sampling as a function of subpopulation productivity) competition.</p> <p>Females evolving under budding dispersal produced less female-biased offspring sex ratios than those from the random dispersal selection regimes, contradicting theoretical predictions. In contrast, the scale of competition did not strongly affect sex allocation. Offspring sex ratio and female fecundity were unaffected by the number of mates, but female fecundity was highest when their mates evolved under budding dispersal, suggesting these males inflict less harm than those evolving under random dispersal.</p> <p>This work highlights that population structure can impact the evolution of sex allocation and sexual conflict. Moreover, selection on either trait may reciprocally affect the evolution of the other, for example via effects on fecundity.</p>
Different effects of mating group size as male and as female on sex allocation in a simultaneous hermaphrodite
<p>Sex allocation theory predicts that the optimal sexual resource allocation of simultaneous hermaphrodites is affected by mating group size (MGS). Although the original concept assumes that the MGS does not differ between male and female functions, the MGS in the male function (MGSm; i.e., the number of sperm recipients the focal individual can deliver its sperm to plus one) and that in the female function (MGSf; the number of sperm donors plus one) do not always coincide and may differently affect the optimal sex allocation. Moreover, reproductive costs can be split into "variable" (e.g., sperm and eggs) and "fixed" (e.g., genitalia) costs, but these have been seldom distinguished in empirical studies. We examined the effects of MGSm and MGSf on the fixed and variable reproductive investments in the sessilian barnacle <i>Balanus rostratus</i>. The results showed that MGSm had a positive effect on sex allocation, whereas MGSf had a nearly significant negative effect. Moreover, the "fixed" cost varied with body size and both aspects of MGS. We argue that the two aspects of MGS should be distinguished for organisms with unilateral mating.</p>
Data from: Limited evidence of biased offspring sex allocation in a cavity-nesting conspecific brood parasite
<p>Sex allocation theory predicts that mothers should bias investment in offspring toward the sex that yields higher fitness returns; one such bias may be a skewed offspring-sex ratio. Sex allocation is well-studied in birds with cooperative breeding systems, with theory on local resource enhancement and production of helpers at the nest, but little theoretical or empirical work has focused on birds with brood parasitic breeding systems. Wood ducks (<em>Aix sponsa</em>) are conspecific brood parasites, and rates of parasitism appear to increase with density. Because female wood ducks show high natal philopatry and nest sites are often limiting, local resource competition (LRC) theory predicts that females should overproduce male offspring—the dispersing sex—when competition (density) is high. However, the unique features of conspecific brood parasitism generate alternative predictions from other sex allocation theories, which we develop and test here. We experimentally manipulated the nesting density of female wood ducks in four populations from 2013-2016 and analyzed the resulting sex allocation of >2000 ducklings. In contrast to predictions we did not find overproduction of male offspring by females in high-density populations, females in better condition, or parasitic females; modest support for LRC was found in overproduction of only female parasitic offspring with higher nest box availability. The lack of evidence for sex ratio biases, as expected for LRC and some aspects of brood parasitism, could reflect conflicting selection pressures from nest competition and brood parasitism, or that mechanisms of adaptive sex ratio bias are not possible.</p>
Evolution of sex allocation plasticity in a hermaphroditic flatworm genus
<p>Sex allocation theory in simultaneous hermaphrodites predicts that optimal sex allocation is influenced by local sperm competition, which occurs when related sperm compete to fertilize a given set of eggs. Different factors, including the mating strategy and the ability to self-fertilize, are predicted to affect local sperm competition and hence the optimal SA. Moreover, since the local sperm competition experienced by an individual can vary temporally and spatially, this can favour the evolution of sex allocation plasticity. Here, using seven species of the free-living flatworm genus <em>Macrostomum</em>, we document interspecific variation in sex allocation, but neither their mating strategy nor their ability to self-fertilize significantly predicted sex allocation among these species. Since we also found interspecific variation in sex allocation plasticity, we further <span>estimated standardized effect sizes for plasticity in response to i) the presence of mating partners </span>(i.e. in isolation vs. with partners) <span>and ii) the strength of </span>local sperm competition (i.e. in small vs. large groups). We found that self-fertilization predicted sex allocation plasticity with respect to the presence of <span>mating partners, with </span>plasticity<span> being lower for self-fertilizing species. Finally, we showed that interspecific variation in </span>sex allocation is higher than intraspecific variation due to sex allocation plasticity. Our study suggests that both sex allocation and sex allocation plasticity are evolutionarily labile, with self-fertilization predicting the latter in <em>Macrostomum</em>.</p>
Variance in offspring sex ratio and maternal allocation in a highly invasive mammal
<p>Skewed sex ratios at birth are widely reported in wild populations, however the extent to which parents are able to modulate the sex ratio of offspring to maximize their own fitness remains unclear. This is particularly true for highly polytocous species as maximizing fitness may include trade-offs between sex ratio and the size and number of offspring in litters. In such cases, it may be adaptive for mothers to adjust both the number of offspring per litter and offspring sex to maximize individual fitness. Investigating maternal sex allocation in wild pigs (<em>Sus scrofa</em>) under stochastic environmental conditions, we predicted that, under favorable conditions, high quality mothers (larger, older) would produce male-biased litters and invest more in producing larger litters with more males. We also predicted sex ratio would vary relative to litter size, with a male-bias among smaller litters. We found evidence that increasing wild boar ancestry, maternal age and condition, and resource availability may weakly contribute to male-biased sex ratio, however, unknown factors not measured in this study are assumed to be more influential. High quality mothers allocated more resources in litter production, but this relationship was driven by adjustment of litter size, not sex ratio. There was no relationship between sex ratio and litter size. Collectively, our results emphasized that adjustment of litter size appeared to be the primary reproductive characteristic manipulated in wild pigs to increase fitness rather than adjustment of offspring sex ratio.</p>
Differential sex allocation strategies between females and facultative hermaphrodites of Chamaelirium hisauchianum (Melanthiaceae)
<p><span>Species of <em>Chamaelirium</em> are known to be highly diversified in sexual characters, but there has been no detailed empirical approach to elucidate the mechanism and process of sexual diversification in the genus. This paper reports the results of population-based analyses on various sexual aspects of <em>C. hisauchianum</em> endemic to Japan. Of the 20 populations surveyed, eight (40%) were composed of facultative hermaphrodites highly labile in sexual expression, exhibiting a wide range of gradational variation from hermaphroditism through andromonoecy to male. The remaining 12 populations (60 %) consisted of females and facultative hermaphrodites. In them, 11.8–30.9% (mean 22.2%) of the individuals were female. With no reciprocal sex changes, females and facultative hermaphrodites were regarded as, plausibly genetically determined, discrete sex morphs. In contrast, sexual expression in both sex morphs appeared resource dependent. Besides the difference in floral sexual traits, the average ratio of ovuliferous flowers in females was higher than that in facultative hermaphrodites. The production of ovuliferous flowers by females was less susceptible to both field and cultivated conditions and tended to be significantly relatively higher under unfavorable growing conditions. Females were thus less plastic (or more persistent) in producing ovuliferous flowers (or female organs) than facultative hermaphrodites irrespective of internal and external conditions. In all populations, andromonoecious plants dominated (50.8–100%), which appeared to reflect the high plasticity in sex allocation of facultative hermaphrodites. The different modes of sex allocation were regarded as secondary sex characters and presumably stem from a difference in easiness or attainability of sexual reproduction between the two sex morphs. </span></p>
Egg provisioning explains the penetrance of symbiont-mediated sex allocation distortion in haplodiploids
<p><span>Maternally transmitted symbionts such as <em>Wolbachia</em> can alter sex allocation in haplodiploid arthropods. By biasing population sex ratios towards females, these changes in sex allocation may facilitate the spread of symbionts. In contrast to symbiont-induced cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI), the mechanisms that underpin sex allocation distortion remain poorly understood. Using a nuclear genotype reference panel of the haplodiploid mite <em>Tetranychus</em> <em>urticae</em> and a single </span><span><em>Wolbachia</em> </span><span>variant that is able to simultaneously induce sex allocation distortion and CI, we unraveled the mechanistic basis of </span><span><em>Wolbachia</em>-</span><span>mediated sex allocation distortion. </span><span>Host genotype was an important determinant for the strength of sex allocation distortion. We further show that sex allocation distortion by <em>Wolbachia</em> in haplodiploid mites is driven by increasing egg size, hereby promoting egg fertilization. This change in reproductive physiology was also coupled to increased male and female adult size. Our results echo previous work on <em>Cardinium</em> symbionts, suggesting that sex allocation distortion by regulating host investment in egg size is a common strategy among symbionts that infect haplodiploids. To better understand the relevance that sex allocation distortion may have for the spread of <em>Wolbachia</em> in natural haplodiploid populations, we parametrized a model based on generated phenotypic data. Our simulations show that empirically derived levels of sex allocation distortion can be sufficient to remove invasion thresholds, allowing CI to drive the spread of <em>Wolbachia</em> independently of the initial infection frequency. Our findings help elucidate the mechanisms that underlie the widespread occurrence of symbionts in haplodiploid arthropods and the evolution of sex allocation.</span></p>
Correlated evolution of sex allocation and mating system in wrasses and parrotfishes
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Differential sex allocation strategies between females and facultative hermaphrodites of Chamaelirium hisauchianum (Melanthiaceae)
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Egg provisioning explains the penetrance of symbiont-mediated sex allocation distortion in haplodiploids
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Different effects of mating group size as male and as female on sex allocation in a simultaneous hermaphrodite
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Evolution of sex allocation plasticity in a hermaphroditic flatworm genus
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