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39 results for “spadefoot toad”
FIGURE 13 in Neoichnology of the eastern spadefoot toad, Scaphiopus holbrookii (Anura: Scaphiopodidae): criteria for recognizing anuran burrows in the fossil record
FIGURE 13. Cluster analysis of burrows produced by Scaphiopus holbrookii, Pandinus imperator, Mabuya multifasciata, and Ambystoma tigrinum. For formatting descriptions refer to the captions of Figures 10–12.
FIGURE 5. Vertical shafts with terminal chambers. 1 in Neoichnology of the eastern spadefoot toad, Scaphiopus holbrookii (Anura: Scaphiopodidae): criteria for recognizing anuran burrows in the fossil record
FIGURE 5. Vertical shafts with terminal chambers. 1, Side view (SH25). 2, Frontal view (SH33). 3, Side view (SH33).
FIGURE 8 in Neoichnology of the eastern spadefoot toad, Scaphiopus holbrookii (Anura: Scaphiopodidae): criteria for recognizing anuran burrows in the fossil record
FIGURE 8. Cluster analysis of all burrows produced by Scaphiopus holbrookii. Numbers in yellow circles indicate a major cluster of burrows discussed in the text. The color of the burrow specimen number indicates the architecture of the burrow: red = vertical shafts; orange = subvertical shafts; green = isolated chambers. The similarity values of the clusters are indicated by an arrow and a number. RT = resting trace.
FIGURE 4. Bioglyphs produced during burrow construction. 1–2 in Neoichnology of the eastern spadefoot toad, Scaphiopus holbrookii (Anura: Scaphiopodidae): criteria for recognizing anuran burrows in the fossil record
FIGURE 4. Bioglyphs produced during burrow construction. 1–2, Photo (1) and line drawing (2) of a raised ridge on the bottom of the terminal chamber (SH11). The arrows in 1 and 2 and circled area in 2 indicate the position of the ridge on the base of the chamber. 3–4, Photo (3) and line drawing (4) of an imprint of an individual's hindlimb (SH11). The arrows in 3 and 4 and circled area in 4 indicate the position of the imprint on the chamber floor. 5–6, Photo (5) and line drawing (6) of a terminal chamber showing multiple triangular protrusions (SH25). The arrows in 5 and 6 and circled areas in 6 indicate the positions of the protrusions on the chamber walls.
FIGURE 1. Anuran morphology. 1 in Neoichnology of the eastern spadefoot toad, Scaphiopus holbrookii (Anura: Scaphiopodidae): criteria for recognizing anuran burrows in the fossil record
FIGURE 1. Anuran morphology. 1, Basic anuran anatomy. Inset picture shows an enlarged hindlimb with tubercles located on the base of the pes. 2, Scaphiopus holbrookii on the sediment surface. 3, S. holbrookii burrowing beneath the surface.
FIGURE 3 in Neoichnology of the eastern spadefoot toad, Scaphiopus holbrookii (Anura: Scaphiopodidae): criteria for recognizing anuran burrows in the fossil record
FIGURE 3. Surface feature produced by Scaphiopus holbrookii. 1, Shallow pit in the sediment surface. 2, Two separate, closely spaced burrow openings. 3, A single circular burrowing opening. 4, Excavated sediment (sand) on top of a burrow opening.
FIGURE 11 in Neoichnology of the eastern spadefoot toad, Scaphiopus holbrookii (Anura: Scaphiopodidae): criteria for recognizing anuran burrows in the fossil record
FIGURE 11. Cluster analysis of burrows produced by Scaphiopus holbrookii and Mabuya multifasciata. The color of the burrow specimen number indicates the tracemaker: orange = M. multifasciata. For additional formatting descriptions refer to Figure 10.
FIGURE 10 in Neoichnology of the eastern spadefoot toad, Scaphiopus holbrookii (Anura: Scaphiopodidae): criteria for recognizing anuran burrows in the fossil record
FIGURE 10. Cluster analysis of burrows produced by Scaphiopus holbrookii and Pandinus imperator. Major clusters discussed in the text are denoted with the letter of the cluster in a yellow circle. The color of the burrow specimen number indicates the tracemaker: green = S. holbrookii; red = P. imperator. The similarity values of the clusters are marked with an arrow and a number.
FIGURE 2 in Neoichnology of the eastern spadefoot toad, Scaphiopus holbrookii (Anura: Scaphiopodidae): criteria for recognizing anuran burrows in the fossil record
FIGURE 2. Quantitative properties of burrows. 1, Measured properties include maximum depth (D), tunnel and shaft width (w), height (h), and circumference (c), length (L), and slope (S). 2, Complexity (C) is the sum of the number of surface openings (e), segments (s), and chambers (h) of a burrow. 3, Tortuosity is a measure of the average sinuosity of all of the segments of a burrow system. The tortuosity of a single segment is calculated by dividing the length (u) by the straight-line distance (v). Modified from Hembree et al. (2012).
FIGURE 9 in Neoichnology of the eastern spadefoot toad, Scaphiopus holbrookii (Anura: Scaphiopodidae): criteria for recognizing anuran burrows in the fossil record
FIGURE 9. Three different species and their respective burrows produced in previous studies. 1, An emperor scorpion (Pandinus imperator). 2, A subvertical tunnel produced by P. imperator. 3, A gold skink (Mabuya multifasciata). 4, A subvertical tunnel produced by M. multifasciata. 5, A tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum). 6, A subvertical tunnel produced by A. tigrinum.
FIGURE 6. Subvertical shafts with terminal chambers. 1 in Neoichnology of the eastern spadefoot toad, Scaphiopus holbrookii (Anura: Scaphiopodidae): criteria for recognizing anuran burrows in the fossil record
FIGURE 6. Subvertical shafts with terminal chambers. 1, View from the back of burrow (SH11). 2, Side view (SH11). 3, Side view (SH14).
FIGURE 14 in Neoichnology of the eastern spadefoot toad, Scaphiopus holbrookii (Anura: Scaphiopodidae): criteria for recognizing anuran burrows in the fossil record
FIGURE 14. Anomalous burrow architecture (SH16) defined as a resting trace. 1, View from the side. 2, View from the bottom of the burrow.
FIGURE 7. Isolated chambers. 1 in Neoichnology of the eastern spadefoot toad, Scaphiopus holbrookii (Anura: Scaphiopodidae): criteria for recognizing anuran burrows in the fossil record
FIGURE 7. Isolated chambers. 1, Side view (SH20). 2, Frontal view (SH20). 3, Frontal view (SH67).
Cross-species transcriptomics uncovers genes underlying genetic accommodation of developmental plasticity in spadefoot toads
<p>That hardcoded genomes can manifest as plastic phenotypes responding to environmental perturbations is a fascinating feature of living organisms. How such developmental plasticity is regulated at the molecular level is beginning to be uncovered aided by the development of -omic techniques. Here, we compare the transcriptome-wide responses of two species of spadefoot toads with differing capacity for developmental acceleration of their larvae in the face of a shared environmental risk: pond drying. By comparing gene expression profiles over time and performing cross-species network analyses, we identified orthologues and functional gene pathways whose environmental sensitivity in expression have diverged between species. Genes related to lipid, cholesterol and steroid biosynthesis and metabolism make up most of a module of genes environmentally responsive in one species, but canalized in the other. The evolutionary changes in the regulation of the genes identified through these analyses may have been key in the genetic accommodation of developmental plasticity in this system.</p>
Cross-species transcriptomics uncovers genes underlying genetic accommodation of developmental plasticity in spadefoot toads
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Population genetics for conservation of spadefoot toads, Pelobates fuscus, in Western and Central Europe
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Cryptic genetic variation in brain gene expression precedes the evolution of cannibalism in spadefoot toad tadpoles
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Data from: Postglacial recolonization of North America by spadefoot toads: integrating niche and corridor modeling to study species' range dynamics over geologic time
<p>Understanding the factors that shape species' distributions is a key topic in biogeography. As climates change, species can either cope with these changes through evolution, plasticity or by shifting their ranges to track the optimal climatic conditions. Ecological niche modeling (ENM) is a widespread technique in biogeography that estimates the niche of the organism by using occurrences and environmental data to estimate species' potential distributions. ENMs are often criticized for failing to take species' dispersal abilities into consideration. Here, we attempt to fill this gap by combining ENMs with dispersal and corridor modeling to study the range dynamics of North American spadefoot toads (Scaphiopodidae) over the Holocene. We first estimated the current and past distributions of spadefoot toads and then estimated their past distributions from the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) to the present day. Then, we estimated how each taxon recolonized North American by using dispersal and corridor modeling. By combining these two modeling approaches we were able to 1) estimate the LGM refugia used by the North American spadefoot toads, 2) further refine these projections by estimating which of the putative LGM refugia contributed to the recolonization of North America via dispersal, and 3) estimate the relative influence of each LGM refugium to the current species' distributions. The models were tested using previously published phylogeographic data, revealing a high degree of congruence between our models and the genetic data. These results suggest that combining ENMs and dispersal modeling over time is a promising approach to investigate both historical and future species' range dynamics.</p>
Maintenance of phenotypic plasticity is linked to oxidative stress in spadefoot toad larvae
<p class="MsoNormal">Phenotypic plasticity allows organisms to improve the match between their phenotype and heterogeneous environments. Theoretical models have argued that costs of maintaining the sensory and response machinery necessary for adaptive phenotypic plasticity are important determinants to the evolution of plasticity. Despite recurrent arguments invoking putative metabolic costs associated with maintenance of cellular machinery, no studies have yet attempted to quantify it from a molecular standpoint. Here we experimentally examine physiological differences across genotypes (sibships) of spadefoot toad larvae with different degrees of plasticity in response to predator cues. We observed marked differences across sibships in developmental, growth and morphological responses to predators, and tested whether increased plasticity was associated with oxidative stress or immune suppression. We observed that more plastic sibships experienced higher antioxidant enzymatic activity when reared in the absence of predator cues, i.e. not expressing their plastic responses. The degree of plasticity was also associated with higher lipid peroxidation and slightly greater granulocyte-to-lymphocyte ratio. Higher antioxidant activity in highly plastic sibships suggests that maintenance of phenotypic plasticity may be linked to energy demanding metabolic processes. Our findings suggest that having the potential to produce plastic responses may incur oxidative and immunological costs. In the long term, such maintenance costs may erode individual fitness and even constrain the evolution of plasticity. To our knowledge, this is the first empirical evidence indicating the existence of a physiological cost to the maintenance of phenotypic plasticity.</p>
Data from: Identification of candidate loci for adaptive phenotypic plasticity in natural populations of spadefoot toads
<p>Phenotypic plasticity allows organisms to alter their phenotype in direct response to changes in the environment. Despite growing recognition of plasticity's role in ecology and evolution, few studies have probed plasticity's molecular bases—especially using natural populations. We investigated the genetic basis of phenotypic plasticity in natural populations of spadefoot toads (<i>Spea multiplicata</i>). <i>Spea</i> tadpoles normally develop into an 'omnivore' morph that is favored in long-lasting, low-density ponds. However, if tadpoles consume freshwater shrimp or other tadpoles, they can develop (via plasticity) into a 'carnivore' morph that is favored in shallow, high-density ponds. By combining natural variation in pond ecology and morph production with population genetic approaches, we identified candidate loci associated with morph (carnivores versus omnivores) and loci associated with adaptive phenotypic plasticity (adaptive versus maladaptive morph choice). Our candidate morph loci mapped to two genes, whereas our candidate plasticity loci mapped to 12 genes. In both cases, the identified genes tended to have functions related to their putative role in spadefoot tadpole biology. Our results thereby form the basis for future studies into the molecular mechanisms that mediate plasticity in spadefoots. More generally, these results illustrate how diverse loci might be deployed to mediate adaptive plasticity.</p>
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