How new communication behaviors evolve: Androgens as modifiers of neuromotor structure and function in foot-flagging frogs

<p>How diverse animal communication signals have arisen is a question that has fascinated many. <em>Xenopus</em> frogs have been a model system used for three decades to reveal insights into the neuroendocrine mechanisms and evolution of vocal diversity. Due to the ease of studying central nervous system control of the laryngeal muscles <em>in vitro</em>, <em>Xenopus</em> has helped us understand how variation in communication signals between sexes and between species is produced at the molecular, cellular, and systems levels. Yet, it is becoming easier to make similar advances in non-model organisms. Here, we summarize our research on a group of frog species that have evolved a novel hind limb signal known as 'foot flagging.' We have shown that the evolution of foot flagging in multiple species is accompanied by the evolution of higher androgen hormone sensitivity in the leg muscles and an increased density of spinal interneurons in the neuromotor system that controls the hind limb. Comparing this work to prior work in <em>Xenopus</em>, we highlight which patterns of hormone sensitivity and neural circuit properties are shared between <em>Xenopus</em> and foot-flagging frogs and which appear to be species-specific. Overall, we aim to illustrate the power of drawing inspiration from experiments in model organisms, in which the mechanistic details have been worked out, and then apply these ideas to a non-traditional model species to reveal new details, further complexities, and fresh hypotheses.</p>