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9,882 results for “Scale”
Data from: Environment and host as large-scale controls of ectomycorrhizal fungi
Explaining the large-scale diversity of soil organisms that drive biogeochemical processes—and their responses to environmental change—is critical. However, identifying consistent drivers of belowground diversity and abundance for some soil organisms at large spatial scales remains problematic. Here we investigate a major guild, the ectomycorrhizal fungi, across European forests at a spatial scale and resolution that is—to our knowledge—unprecedented, to explore key biotic and abiotic predictors of ectomycorrhizal diversity and to identify dominant responses and thresholds for change across complex environmental gradients. We show the effect of 38 host, environment, climate and geographical variables on ectomycorrhizal diversity, and define thresholds of community change for key variables. We quantify host specificity and reveal plasticity in functional traits involved in soil foraging across gradients. We conclude that environmental and host factors explain most of the variation in ectomycorrhizal diversity, that the environmental thresholds used as major ecosystem assessment tools need adjustment and that the importance of belowground specificity and plasticity has previously been underappreciated.
Data from: Local range boundaries versus large-scale tradeoffs: climatic and competitive constraints on tree growth
Species often respond to human‐caused climate change by shifting where they occur on the landscape. To anticipate these shifts, we need to understand the forces that determine where species currently occur. We tested whether a long‐hypothesised trade‐off between climate and competitive constraints explains where tree species grow on mountain slopes. Using tree rings, we reconstructed growth sensitivity to climate and competition in range centre and range margin tree populations in three climatically distinct regions. We found that climate often constrains growth at environmentally harsh elevational range boundaries, and that climatic and competitive constraints trade‐off at large spatial scales. However, there was less evidence that competition consistently constrained growth at benign elevational range boundaries; thus, local‐scale climate‐competition trade‐offs were infrequent. Our work underscores the difficulty of predicting local‐scale range dynamics, but suggests that the constraints on tree performance at a large‐scale (e.g. latitudinal) may be predicted from ecological theory.
Gender differences in scientific careers: A large-scale bibliometric analysis
<p>Data set belonging to the paper 'Gender differences in scientific careers: A large-scale bibliometric analysis' (https://arxiv.org/abs/2106.12624).</p>
Search Behavior can Affect Financial Decision Results: A Behavior Study of Google Trends Data and Linguistic Scale
As search engines have become the main information resources of our daily life, studies about search behavior on the internet have gained great popularity with the growing knowledge of how the search behavior itself can affect our daily decisions, e.g. what to purchase, where to travel and even how to define beauty. However, there is no consensus conclusion whether the search behavior itself or the linguistic meaning behind it that can affect their decision. After analyzing the linguistic meanings of 13,915 English words obtained from Google Trends and its profit gained from the US house market by automatic transactions. It is found that linguistic meanings can affect financial decision results as word clusters with supervised machine learning methods.
Scaling between macro- to microscale climatic data reveals strong phylogenetic inertia in niche evolution in plethodontid salamanders
<p>Macroclimatic niches are indirect and potentially inadequate predictors of the realized environmental conditions that many species experience. Consequently, analyses of niche evolution based on macroclimatic data alone may incompletely represent the evolutionary dynamics of species niches. Yet, understanding how an organisms' climatic (Grinnellian) niche responds to changing macroclimatic conditions is of vital importance for predicting their potential response to global change. In this study, we integrate microclimatic and macroclimatic data across 26 species of plethodontid salamanders to portray the relationship between microclimatic niche evolution in response to changing macroclimate. We demonstrate stronger phylogenetic signal in microclimatic niche variables than at the macroclimatic scale. Even so, we find that the microclimatic niche tracks climatic changes at the macroscale, but with a phylogenetic lag at million-year timescales. We hypothesize that behavioral tracking of the microclimatic niche over space and phenology generates the lag: salamanders preferentially select microclimates similar to their ancestral conditions rather than adapting with changes in physiology. We demonstrate that macroclimatic variables are weak predictors of niche evolution and that incorporating spatial scale into analyses of niche evolution is critical for predicting responses to climate change.</p>
Data from: Opportunistic data reveal widespread species turnover in Enallagma damselflies at biogeographical scales
An information tradeoff exists between systematic presence/absence surveys and purely opportunistic (presence-only) records for investigating the geography of community structure. Opportunistic species occurrence data may be of relatively limited quality, but typically involves numerous observations and species. Given the quality-quantity tradeoff, what can opportunistic data reveal about spatial patterns in community structure? Here we explore opportunistic data in describing geographic patterns of species composition, using over 4,600 occurrence records of Enallagma damselflies in the United States. We tested phylogenetic scale (genus level, Enallagma major clades, Enallagma subclades) and spatial extent (U.S. vs. watershed regions), hypothesizing that nonrandom structure is more likely at larger spatial extents. We also used three sets of systematic presence/absence surveys as a benchmark for validating opportunistic presence-only records. Null model analysis of matrix coherence and species replacements showed many cases of nonrandom structure and widespread species turnover. This outcome was repeated across spatial and environmental gradients and community composition scenarios. Turnover dominated across the U.S. and two watersheds spanning biogeographic boundaries, but random assemblages were prevalent in a third watershed with limited longitudinal extent. Turnover also pervaded each level of phylogeny. Opportunistic presence-only datasets showed identical patterns as systematic presence/absence datasets. These results indicate that extensive opportunistic data can be used to detect species turnover, especially at geographic scales where range margins are crossed.
Data from: Habitat structure modifies microclimate: an approach for mapping fine-scale thermal refuge
1. Contemporary techniques predicting habitat suitability under climate change projections often underestimate availability of thermal refuges. Habitat structure contributes to thermal heterogeneity at a variety of spatial scales, but quantifying microclimates at organism‐relevant resolutions remains a challenge. Landscapes that appear homogeneous at large scales may offer patchily distributed thermal refuges at finer scales. 2. We quantified the relationship between vegetation structure and the thermal environment at a scale relevant to small, terrestrial animals using a new approach for mapping fine‐scale thermal heterogeneity. We expected that vegetation would create attenuated microclimates and that the influence of vegetation structure would vary seasonally. We measured shrub volume, horizontal cover, and operative temperature (Te) in a sagebrush‐steppe habitat in Idaho, USA, at 534 microsites across two study sites of approximately 1 km2 each. We modeled relationships between habitat structure and both mean daily maximum temperature (urn:x-wiley:2041210X:media:mee313008:mee313008-math-0001max) and mean diurnal temperature range (urn:x-wiley:2041210X:media:mee313008:mee313008-math-0002) for each study site during summer and winter. Aerial imagery from unmanned aerial systems was used to estimate shrub volume and canopy cover at 1‐m resolution, and we applied the best fit model to map thermal heterogeneity across broader extents. 3. Increasing shrub volume and cover was associated with lower urn:x-wiley:2041210X:media:mee313008:mee313008-math-0003max and (urn:x-wiley:2041210X:media:mee313008:mee313008-math-0004, but strengths of the relationships differed between study sites. There was considerable heterogeneity in availability of thermal refuges across sagebrush‐steppe rangelands that have traditionally been considered relatively homogeneous. 4. This technique can help ecologists and land managers identify critical thermal refuges that large‐scale climate modelling can overlook and thus contribute to an understanding of animal‐habitat relationships under changing climates and land uses.
Data from: Chemical defense over decadal scales: ontogenetic allocation trajectories and consequences for fitness in a foundation tree species
1. Expression of herbivore defense traits can change dramatically during the course of plant development. Little is known, however, about the degree of genetic or sexual variation in these ontogenetic defense trajectories or whether the trajectories themselves are adaptive, especially in long‐lived species. 2. We used a 13‐year dataset of chemical defense traits, growth, and survivorship from a common garden of trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) genotypes to document long‐term defense trajectories and their relationship to tree fitness during juvenile and early mature stages. 3. Overall, concentrations of the two principal classes of aspen defense compounds (salicinoid phenolic glycosides [SPGs] and condensed tannins [CTs]) decreased to differing degrees in foliage of juvenile trees and then remained relatively constant in maturity. Initial values, juvenile rates of change, and average mature values all exhibited significant genetic variation for both SPGs and CTs. 4. Relationships between defense trajectory parameters and metrics of tree fitness (growth and survivorship) depended on compound type and tree sex. Females with higher‐allocation SPG trajectories (high initial juvenile concentrations, slow juvenile declines, high mature concentrations) grew more slowly relative to females with lower‐allocation trajectories. In males, higher‐allocation SPG trajectories had a lesser effect on growth but were associated with reduced mortality. Juvenile CT trajectories were not correlated with tree fitness, but average CT concentration in maturity was positively related to growth in females. 5. These results suggest that ontogenetic defense trajectories are adaptive and subject to natural selection. Genotypic variation and ontogeny shape tree defensive chemistry, both independently and interactively. These patterns of defense expression have the potential to structure trophic interactions and the genetic composition of forests in both space and time.
Data from: Mast seeding patterns are asynchronous at a continental scale
<p>Resource pulses are rare events with a short duration and high magnitude that drive the dynamics of both plant and animal populations and communities. Mast seeding is perhaps the most common type of resource pulse that occurs in terrestrial ecosystems, is characterized by the synchronous and highly variable production of seed crops by a population of perennial plants, is widespread both taxonomically and geographically, and is often associated with nutrient scarcity. The rare production of abundant seed crops (mast events) that are orders of magnitude greater than crops during low seed years leads to high reproductive success in seed consumers and has cascading impacts in ecosystems. Although it has been suggested that mast seeding is potentially synchronized at continental scales, studies are largely constrained to local areas covering tens to hundreds of kilometres. Furthermore, summer temperature, which acts as a cue for mast seeding, shows patterns at continental scales manifested as a juxtaposition of positive and negative anomalies that have been linked to irruptive movements of boreal seed-eating birds. Here, we show a breakdown in synchrony of mast seeding patterns across space, leading to asynchrony at the continental scale. In an analysis of synchrony for a transcontinental North America tree species spanning distances of greater than 5,200 km, we found that mast seeding patterns were significantly asynchronous at distances of greater than 2,000 km apart (all <i>P</i> < 0.05). Other studies have shown declines in synchrony across distance, but not asynchrony. Spatiotemporal variation in summer temperatures at the continental scale drives patterns of synchrony in mast seeding, and we anticipate that this affects the spatial dynamics of numerous seed-eating communities, from insects to small mammals to the large-scale migration patterns of boreal seed-eating birds.</p>
Data from: Ultra-fine scale spatially-integrated mapping of habitat and occupancy using structure-from-motion
Organisms respond to and often simultaneously modify their environment. While these interactions are apparent at the landscape extent, the driving mechanisms often occur at very fine spatial scales. Structure-from-Motion (SfM), a computer vision technique, allows the simultaneous mapping of organisms and fine scale habitat, and will greatly improve our understanding of habitat suitability, ecophysiology, and the bi-directional relationship between geomorphology and habitat use. SfM can be used to create high-resolution (centimeter-scale) three-dimensional (3D) habitat models at low cost. These models can capture the abiotic conditions formed by terrain and simultaneously record the position of individual organisms within that terrain. While coloniality is common in seabird species, we have a poor understanding of the extent to which dense breeding aggregations are driven by fine-scale active aggregation or limited suitable habitat. We demonstrate the use of SfM for fine-scale habitat suitability by reconstructing the locations of nests in a gentoo penguin colony and fitting models that explicitly account for conspecific attraction. The resulting digital elevation models (DEMs) are used as covariates in an inhomogeneous hybrid point process model. We find that gentoo penguin nest site selection is a function of the topography of the landscape, but that nests are far more aggregated than would be expected based on terrain alone, suggesting a strong role of behavioral aggregation in driving coloniality in this species. This integrated mapping of organisms and fine scale habitat will greatly improve our understanding of fine-scale habitat suitability, ecophysiology, and the complex bi-directional relationship between geomorphology and habitat use.
Data from: Testing for human impacts in the mismatch of living and dead ostracode assemblages at nested spatial scales in subtropical lakes from the Bahamian archipelago
Naturally time-averaged accumulations of skeletal remains – death assemblages – provide reliable, albeit temporally coarse, information on the species composition and structure of communities in diverse settings, and their mismatch with local living communities usually signals recent human-driven ecological change. Here, we present the first test of live-dead mismatch as an indicator of human stress using ostracodes. On three islands along a gradient of human population density in the Bahamas, we compared the similarity of living and death assemblages in ten lakes with relatively low levels of human stress to live-dead similarity in eleven physically comparable lakes subject to industrial, agricultural, or other human activities currently or in the past. We find that live-dead agreement in pristine lakes is consistently excellent, boding well for using death assemblages in modern-day and paleolimnological biodiversity assessments. In most comparison of physically-similar paired lakes, sample-level live-dead mismatch in both taxonomic composition and species' rank-abundance is on average significantly greater in the stressed lake; live-dead agreement is not lower in all samples from stressed lakes, but is more variable. When samples are pooled for lake-level and island-level comparisons, stressed lakes still yield lower live-dead agreement but the significance of the difference with pristine lakes decreases – species that occur dead-only (or alive-only) in one sample are likely to occur alive (or dead) in other samples. Inter-island differences in live-dead agreement are congruent with, but not significantly correlated with, differences in human population density. This situation arises from heterogeneity in the timing and magnitudes of stresses and in the extent of post-stress recovery. Live-dead mismatch in ostracode assemblages thus may be a reliable indicator of human impact at the sample-level with the potential to be a widely-applicable tool for identifying impacted habitats, and perhaps, monitor the progress of their recovery.
Fine‐scale habitat heterogeneity and vole runways influence seed dispersal in Plagiobothrys nothofulvus
<p class="Normal1"><b>PREMISE:</b><i> </i>Seed dispersal allows plants to colonize new sites and contributes to gene flow among populations. Despite its fundamental importance to ecological and evolutionary processes, our understanding of seed dispersal is limited due to the difficulty of directly observing dispersal events. This is particularly true for the majority of plant species that are considered to have gravity as their primary dispersal mechanism. The potential for long-distance movement of gravity-dispersed seeds by secondary dispersal vectors is rarely evaluated. </p> <p class="Normal1"><b>METHODS: </b>We employ whole-genome assays of maternally inherited cpDNA in <i>Plagiobothrys nothofulvus</i> to resolve patterns of genetic variation due to effective (realized) seed dispersal within a 16 hectare prairie that is characterized by a mosaic of habitat types. We evaluate the effects of microgeographic landscape features extracted from micro-UAV aerial surveys on patterns of seed dispersal using landscape genetics methods.</p> <p class="Normal1"><b>RESULTS: </b>We found evidence of high resistance to seed-mediated gene flow (effective dispersal) within patches of <i>P. nothofulvus</i>, and strong genetic structure over distances of less than 20 meters. Geographic distance was a poor predictor of dispersal distance, while landscape features had stronger influences on patterns of dispersal<a name="_Hlk22028649"> (distance and direction of seed movement)</a>. Patterns of dispersal were best predicted by the combined distribution of flower patches, habitat type, and the network of vole runways, with the latter explaining the largest proportion of variation in the model.</p> <p class="Normal1"><b>CONCLUSIONS: </b>Our results suggest that primary dispersal occurs mostly within microhabitats and infrequent secondary dispersal may occur over longer distances due to the activity of small mammals and other vertebrates.</p>
Data from: Boreal tree growth exhibits decadal-scale ecological memory to drought and insect defoliation, but no negative response to their interaction
1. Interactions between drought and insect defoliation may dramatically alter forest function under novel climate and disturbance regimes, but remain poorly understood. We empirically tested two important hypotheses regarding tree responses to drought and insect defoliation: 1) trees exhibit delayed, persistent, and cumulative growth responses to these stressors; 2) physiological feedbacks in tree responses to these stressors exacerbate their impacts on tree growth. These hypotheses remain largely untested at a landscape scale, yet are critical for predicting forest function under novel future conditions given the connection between tree growth and demographic processes such as mortality and regeneration. 2. We developed a Bayesian hierarchical model to quantify the ecological memory of tree growth to past water deficits and insect defoliation events, derive antecedent variables reflecting the persistent and cumulative effects of these stressors on current growth, and test for their interactive effects. The model was applied to extensive tree growth, weather, and defoliation survey data from western and eastern regions of the Canadian boreal forest impacted by recent drought and defoliation events and characterized by contrasting tree compositions, climates, and insect defoliators. 3. Results revealed persistent negative tree growth responses to past water (all trees) and defoliation (host trees) stress lasting 3-6 and 10-12 years, respectively, depending on study region. Accounting for the ecological memory of tree growth to water and defoliation stress allowed for detection of interactions not previously demonstrated. Contrary to expectations, we found evidence for positive interactions among non-host trees likely due to reduced water stress following defoliation events. Regional differences in ecological memory to water stress highlight the role of climate in shaping forest responses to drought. 4. Synthesis. Study results suggest negative feedbacks in tree responses to drought and insect attack may be weaker than predicted for defoliator-dominated boreal forest systems. Instead, insect defoliation may offset the impacts of water deficit on boreal tree growth by reducing transpirational water demand. This offset mimics increased resistance to drought following forest thinning and may lessen growth and mortality losses due to increased aridity and more severe insect damage forecast for the boreal forest under global change.
Predicted lake dissolved organic carbon at a global scale
<p>The pool of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), is one of the main regulators of the ecology and biogeochemistry of inland water ecosystems, and an important loss term in the carbon budgets of land ecosystems. We used a novel machine learning technique and global databases to test if and how different environmental factors contribute to the variability of <em>in situ</em> DOC concentrations in lakes. In order to estimate DOC in lakes globally we predicted DOC in each lake with a surface area larger than 0.1 km<sup>2</sup>. Catchment properties and meteorological and hydrological features explained most of the variability of the lake DOC concentration, whereas lake morphometry played only a marginal role. The predicted average of the global DOC concentration in lake water was 3.88 mg L<sup>-1</sup>. The global predicted pool of DOC in lake water was 729 Tg from which 421 Tg was the share of the Caspian Sea. The results provide global-scale evidence for ecological, climate and carbon cycle models of lake ecosystems and related future prognoses.</p>
Photo scales & rulers (low poly)
Archaeological photo scales & rulers. You can use it for your models and scenes. Source: Objaverse 1.0 / Sketchfab
Victorian Scales
Antique Victorian Scales used historically in an apothecary to measure out herbs and other medicinal items. Source: Objaverse 1.0 / Sketchfab
Grooved adz with scale
This unusual artifact was found near Monroe, NC in 1973 by local landowner, Ken Batson. This suspected grooved adz is made out of local meta-argillite and has a deliberately modified area where a handle was likely attached. This distinct "neck" was created using a technique of pecking and grinding. Unlike a typical grooved axe, the bit end of this tool would have been oriented perpendicular to the handle and was not ground smooth. Note the edge damage on the bit end. An adz is woodworking tool used to dress, shape, or smooth timber and could have been used prehistorically to make wooden bowls, dugout canoes, or other wooden objects. It is unclear how old this object is, but if it was made during the time that many of the grooved axes were being made and used, it would likely date to the Late Archaic period (3000-1000 BC). It measures approximately 18.5 cm long, 5.2 cm tall, and 3.8 cm wide. This model was constructed by David Cranford using 46 digital photos and Agisoft Metashape software. Credit: NCDNCR/OSA Source: Objaverse 1.0 / Sketchfab
AMX-30 B2 scale model scan
This 3D reference model was generated with photogrammetry software 3DF Zephyr v4.513 processing 214 images taken from a 1/35 scale model. And is intented for referencing when 3D modeling this tank. Source: Objaverse 1.0 / Sketchfab
Scale helmet
ID no. ZKWawel 1274 Museum Wawel Royal Castle – State Art Collection http://muzea.malopolska.pl/en/obiekty/-/a/4869610/4889872 Digitalisation: RDW MIC, Małopolska's Virtual Museums Plus project Source: Objaverse 1.0 / Sketchfab
Allosaurus Right Humerus (Scaled-Down)
A scaled-down scan of an Allosaurus from the American Museum of Natural History Source: Objaverse 1.0 / Sketchfab
ScienceDex guides
Understand access before you commit
These curated guides explain access requirements, typical timelines, costs, and reuse considerations for widely used research datasets.
Allen Brain Atlas
Allen Brain Atlas is an Allen Institute collection of brain map atlases, datasets, APIs, and analysis tools covering mouse, human, and non-human primate brain resources.
Annotated Behaviour and Observability Dataset (ABODe)
ABODe is a University of Edinburgh DataShare dataset for behavior classification in group-housed mice using home-cage video, identities, bounding boxes, ground-plate positions, and annotator labels.
DANDI Archive for NWB datasets
DANDI is a BRAIN Initiative archive for publishing and sharing neurophysiology data, including electrophysiology, optophysiology, and behavioral data packaged as NWB and related standards.
International Brain Laboratory public data
The International Brain Laboratory public data releases expose standardized mouse decision-making experiments, including Neuropixels recordings, widefield calcium imaging, behavior, and session metadata accessed through the ONE API.
OpenNeuro
OpenNeuro is a free, open platform for sharing neuroimaging datasets, with public search, dataset pages, and download paths for web, S3, DataLad, and the OpenNeuro CLI.