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4,563 results for “correlations”
Data from: Hormonal, behavioral, and life-history traits exhibit correlated shifts in relation to population establishment in a novel environment
Climate change, habitat alteration, range expansions, and biological invasions are all predicted to require rapid shifts in multiple traits including behavior and life history, both for initial population establishment and subsequent adaptation. Hormonal mechanisms likely play a key role in facilitating or constraining plastic and genetic responses for suites of traits, but few studies have evaluated their role in shaping contemporary adaptation or diversification. We examined multiple phenotypic adjustments and associated hormonal changes following a recent (early 1980s) colonization event, in which a temperate-breeding songbird, the dark-eyed junco (Junco hyemalis), became established in the Mediterranean climate of San Diego, California. The milder climate has led to an extended breeding season and year-round residency, and we document shifts in multiple sexually selected behaviors and plumage traits. Testosterone titers in San Diego were elevated for longer but with a lower peak value compared to a nearby native-range population, and correlations between testosterone and related traits were similar within and among populations. A common garden study indicated that changes in testosterone likely represent plastic responses to the less seasonal environment of the city, providing the context against which subsequent genetic changes in morphology likely occurred. We argue that correlated shifts in multiple traits, organized by underlying physiology, may be a generally important element of many successful adjustments to changing environments.
Data from: Correlations between heterozygosity and reproductive success in the blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus): an analysis of inbreeding and single locus effects
In order to understand the mechanisms behind heterozygosity-fitness correlations (HFC), it is necessary to employ large numbers of markers with known function and to independently estimate the variation in inbreeding in the population. Here we genotyped 794 blue tits with 79 microsatellites that were distributed across 25 chromosomes and that were classified either as "functional" (N = 58) or "neutral" (N = 21). We found a positive effect of individual heterozygosity at multiple loci on clutch size, on the number of eggs sired by males, and on the number of recruits produced by males and females. We documented the occurrence of some consanguineous matings and found evidence for a particular type of population structure that can contribute to the occurrence of inbreeding. As the set of "neutral" loci provided more power to detect HFC and identity disequilibrium, we argue that "neutral" markers are better predictors of the effects of inbreeding. The number of significant effects at single loci did not exceed the expected number of false positives and no strong effects were associated with heterozygosity at "functional" markers. Thus, the HFC found here cannot be attributed to strong effects of the loci under study.
Data from: Correlated evolution of sexual dimorphism and male dimorphism in a clade of neotropical harvestmen
Secondary sexual traits increase male fitness, but may be maladaptive in females, generating intralocus sexual conflict that is ameliorated through sexual dimorphism. Sexual selection on males may also lead some males to avoid expenditure on secondary sexual traits and achieve copulations using alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs). Secondary sexual traits can increase or decrease fitness in males, depending on which ART they employ, generating intralocus tactical conflict that can be ameliorated through male dimorphism. Due to the evolutionary forces acting against intralocus sexual and tactical conflicts, male dimorphism could coevolve with sexual dimorphism, a hypothesis that we tested by investigating these dimorphisms across 48 harvestman species. Using three independently derived phylogenies we consistently found that the evolution of sexual dimorphism was correlated with that of male dimorphism, and suggest that the major force behind this relationship is the similarity between selection against intralocus sexual conflict and selection against intralocus tactical conflict. We also found that transitions in male dimorphism were more likely in the presence of sexual dimorphism, indicating that if a sexually selected trait arises on an autosome and is expressed in both sexes, its suppression in females probably evolves earlier than its suppression in small males that adopt ARTs.
Data from: The evolution of defense mechanisms correlate with the explosive diversification of autodigesting Coprinellus mushrooms (Agaricales, Fungi)
Bursts of diversification are known to have contributed significantly to the extant morphological and species diversity, but evidence for many of the theoretical predictions about adaptive radiations have remained contentious. Despite their tremendous diversity, patterns of evolutionary diversification and the contribution of explosive episodes in fungi are largely unknown. Here, using the genus Coprinellus (Psathyrellaceae, Agaricales) as a model, we report the first explosive fungal radiation, and infer that the onset of the radiation follows a change from a multi-layered to a much simpler defense structure on the fruiting bodies. We suggest that this change constitutes a key innovation, relaxing constraints on diversification imposed by nutritional investment into the development of protective tissues of fruiting bodies. Evidence for the impact of protective structures on diversification places our current understanding of fruiting body evolution in a new context. Fossil calibration suggests that Coprinellus mushrooms radiated during the Miocene coinciding with global radiation of large grazing mammals following expansion of dry open grasslands. In addition to diversification-rate based methods, we test the hard polytomy hypothesis, by analyzing the resolvability of internal nodes of the backbone of the putative radiation using Reversible-Jump MCMC. We discuss potential applications and pitfalls as well as how biologically meaningful polytomies can be distinguished from alignment shortcomings. Our data provide insights into the nature of adaptive radiations in general by revealing a deceleration of morphological diversification through time. The "rate" of morphological diversification was approximated by obtaining the temporal distribution of state changes in discrete traits along the trees and comparing it with the tempo of lineage accumulation. By using speciational trees, we found that the number of state changes correlate with the number of lineages, even in parts of the tree with short internal branches, and peaks around the onset of the explosive radiation followed by a slowdown, most likely because of the decrease in available niches.
Data from: Ecological correlates of extinction risk in Chinese amphibians
Aim: China is one of the countries with the richest amphibian biodiversity in the world. Among the 408 Chinese amphibians, 174 species are considered threatened according to the China Biodiversity Red List in 2015. However, to date, which species traits or extrinsic factors are correlated with extinction risk in Chinese amphibians is rarely examined in previous studies. The aims of this study were thus to identify the patterns and correlates of extinction risk in Chinese amphibians and to determine whether patterns and processes were similar between species with either small or large geographic distributions. Location: China. Methods: We obtained twelve species traits and four extrinsic factors that have been commonly linked to the extinction risk of amphibians. After phylogenetic correction, these factors were tested separately and in combination to identify their correlations with extinction risk in all Chinese amphibians, and in small-ranged and large-ranged species. Results: Geographic range size and elevational range were the most important predictors of extinction risk in all Chinese amphibians. Although extinction risk in small-ranged amphibians was predominantly determined by small elevational range, in large-ranged amphibians it was driven by geographic and elevational range sizes, body size, human exploitation index and adult microhabitat. Small-ranged amphibians had a higher percentage of threatened species than large-ranged species. However, the body size distributions were not statistically different between these two amphibian subgroups. Main conclusions: Our findings suggest that conservation priority should be given to species with small geographic and elevational ranges. Small-ranged and large-ranged amphibians should be conserved with different strategies because the factors influencing extinction risk differ between these two groups. In specific, the reduction of habitat loss should be a primary focus of management efforts for small-ranged species. Conservation efforts should also focus on preventing habitat loss and human overexploitation for the effective conservation of large-ranged amphibians.
Data from: Exceptional avian herbivores: multiple transitions toward herbivory in the bird order Anseriformes and its correlation with body mass
Herbivory is rare among birds and is usually thought to have evolved predominately among large, flightless birds due to energetic constraints or an association with increased body mass. Nearly all members of the bird order Anseriformes, which includes ducks, geese, and swans, are flighted and many are predominately herbivorous. However, it is unknown whether herbivory represents a derived state for the order and how many times a predominately herbivorous diet may have evolved. Compiling data from over 200 published diet studies to create a continuous character for herbivory, models of trait evolution support at least five independent transitions toward a predominately herbivorous diet in Anseriformes. Although a nonphylogenetic correlation test recovers a significant positive correlation between herbivory and body mass, this correlation is not significant when accounting for phylogeny. These results indicate a lack of support for the hypothesis that a larger body mass confers an advantage in the digestion of low-quality diets but does not exclude the possibility that shifts to a more abundant food source have driven shifts toward herbivory in other bird lineages. The exceptional number of transitions toward a more herbivorous diet in Anseriformes and lack of correlation with body mass prompts a reinterpretation of the relatively infrequent origination of herbivory among flighted birds.
Data from: Syndromes in suites of correlated traits suggest multiple mechanisms facilitating invasion in a plant range-expander
Various mechanisms can facilitate the success of plant invasions simultaneously, but may be difficult to disentangle. We compared plants of the range-expanding species Bunias orientalis from populations of native, invasive and exotic, not yet invasive origin in a field common garden over two years. Plants were grown under two nitrate-regimes and multiple traits regarding growth, defence, antagonist loads and reproduction were measured. We used a rank-based clustering approach to assign correlated traits to distinct suites. These suites were analysed for "syndromes" that are expressed as a function of population origin and/or fertilisation treatment and might represent different invasion mechanisms. Indeed, distinct suites of traits were differentially affected by these factors. Our results suggest that different pre-adaptation properties, such as certain growth characteristics and intraspecific chemical variation, as well as post-introduction adaptations to antagonists and resource availability in novel habitats are candidate mechanisms that facilitate the success of invasive B. orientalis in parallel. We conclude that rank-based clustering is a robust and expedient approach to integrate multiple traits for elucidating invasion syndromes within individual species. Studying a multitude of traits at different life-history and establishment stages of plants grown under distinct resource treatments reveals species-specific trade-offs and resource sinks and simplifies the interpretation of single trait functions for plant invasiveness.
Data from: Electron correlation in Li+, He, H− and the critical nuclear charge system ZC: energies, densities and Coulomb holes
This paper presents high accuracy correlation energies, intracule densities and Coulomb hole(s) for the lithium cation, helium, hydride ion and the system with the critical nuclear charge, Z_C, for binding two electrons. The fully-correlated (FC) wavefunction and the Hartree-Fock (HF) wavefunction are both determined using a Laguerre-based wavefunction. It is found that for the lithium cation and the helium atom a secondary Coulomb hole is present, in agreement with a previous literature finding, confirming a counter-intuitive conclusion that electron correlation can act to bring distant electrons closer together. However, no evidence for a tertiary Coulomb hole is found. For the hydride anion and the system just prior to electron detachment only a single Coulomb hole is present and electron correlation decreases the probability of finding the electrons closer together at all radial distances. The emergence of a secondary Coulomb hole is investigated and found to occur between Z = Z = 1.15 and Z = 1.20. The FC and HF energies and intracule densities (in atomic units) used to calculate the correlation energy and Coulomb hole respectively, are accurate to at least the nano-scale for helium and the cation and at least the micro-scale for the anions.
Data from: Low demographic variability in wild primate populations: fitness impacts of variation, covariation, and serial correlation in vital rates
In a stochastic environment, long-term fitness can be influenced by variation, covariation, and serial correlation in vital rates (survival and fertility). Yet no study of an animal population has parsed the contributions of these three aspects of variability to long-term fitness. We do so using a unique database that includes complete life history information for wild-living individuals of seven primate species that have been the subjects of long-term (22 to 45 year) behavioral studies. Overall, the estimated levels of vital rate variation had only minor effects on long-term fitness, and the effects of vital rate covariation and serial correlation were even weaker. To explore why, we compared estimated variances of adult survival in primates to values for other vertebrates in the literature, and found that adult survival is significantly less variable in primates than in the other vertebrates. Finally, we tested the prediction that adult survival, because it more strongly influences fitness in a constant environment, will be less variable than newborn survival, and found only mixed support for the prediction. Our results suggest that wild primates may be buffered against detrimental fitness effects of environmental stochasticity by their highly developed cognitive abilities, social networks, and broad, flexible diets.
Data from: Contrasting heterozygosity-fitness correlations across life in a long-lived seabird
Selection is a central force underlying evolutionary change and can vary in strength and direction, for example across time and space. The fitness consequences of individual genetic diversity have often been investigated by testing for multi-locus heterozygosity-fitness correlations (HFCs), but few studies have been able to assess HFCs across life stages and in both sexes. Here, we test for HFCs using a 26-year longitudinal individual-based dataset from a large population of a long-lived seabird (the common tern, Sterna hirundo), where 7974 chicks and breeders of known age were genotyped at 15 microsatellite loci and sampled for life-history traits over the complete life cycle. Heterozygosity was not correlated with fledging or post-fledging prospecting probabilities, but was positively correlated with recruitment probability. For breeders, annual survival was not correlated with heterozygosity, but annual fledgling production was negatively correlated with heterozygosity in males and highest in intermediately heterozygous females. The contrasting HFCs among life stages and sexes indicate differential selective processes and emphasize the importance of assessing fitness consequences of traits over complete life histories.
Data from: Heterozygosity-fitness correlations in zebra finches: microsatellite markers can be better than their reputation
Numerous studies have reported associations between heterozygosity in microsatellite markers and fitness-related traits (heterozygosity-fitness correlations, HFCs). However, it has often been questioned whether HFCs reflect general inbreeding depression, because a small panel of microsatellite markers does not reflect very well an individual's inbreeding coefficient (F) as calculated from a pedigree. Here we challenge this prevailing view. Due to chance events during Mendelian segregation, an individual's realized proportion of the genome that is identical by descent (IBD) may substantially deviate from the pedigree-based expectation (i.e. F). This Mendelian noise may result in a weak correlation between F and multi-locus heterozygosity, but this does not imply that multi-locus heterozygosity is a bad estimator of realized IBD. We examined correlations between 11 fitness-related traits measured in up to 1,192 captive zebra finches and three measures of inbreeding: (1) heterozygosity across 11 microsatellite markers, (2) heterozygosity across 1,359 SNP markers, and (3) F, based on a 5-generation pedigree. All 11 phenotypic traits showed positive relationships with measures of heterozygosity, especially traits that are most closely related to fitness. Remarkably, the small panel of microsatellite markers produced equally strong HFCs as the large panel of SNP markers, and both marker-based approaches produced stronger correlations with phenotypes than the pedigree-based F. We argue that a small panel of microsatellites with high allelic richness may better reflect an individual's realized IBD than previously appreciated, especially in species like the zebra finch, where much of the genome is inherited in large blocks that rarely experience cross-over during meiosis.
Data from: Spatial correlated games
The games are played in a two-dimensional lattice where the players interact with their neighbours. Four game-types are scrutinized by allowing the players to adopt the strategy of their best paid mate neighbour in iterated games. Particular attention is paid in the study to the effect of variable degree of correlation on Nash equilibrium strategy pairs.
Data from: Stimulus background influences phase invariant coding by correlated neural activity
We recently reported that correlations between the activities of peripheral afferents mediate a phase invariant representation of natural communication stimuli that is refined across successive processing stages thereby leading to perception and behavior in the weakly electric fish Apteronotus leptorhynchus (Metzen et al., 2016). Here, we explore how phase invariant coding and perception of natural communication stimuli are affected by changes in the sinusoidal background over which they occur. We found that increasing background frequency led to phase locking, which decreased both detectability and phase invariant coding. Correlated afferent activity was a much better predictor of behavior as assessed from both invariance and detectability than single neuron activity. Thus, our results not only provide further evidence that correlated activity likely determines perception of natural communication signals, but also provide a novel explanation as to why these preferentially occur on top of low frequency as well as low intensity sinusoidal backgrounds.
Data from: Widespread correlations between climatic niche evolution and species diversification in birds
The adaptability of species' climatic niches can influence the dynamics of colonisation and gene flow across climatic gradients, potentially increasing the likelihood of speciation, or reducing extinction in the face of environmental change. However, previous comparative studies have tested these ideas using geographically, taxonomically and ecologically restricted samples, yielding mixed results, and thus the processes linking climatic niche evolution with diversification remain poorly understood. Focusing on birds, the largest and most widespread class of terrestrial vertebrates, we test whether variation in species diversification among clades is correlated with rates of climatic niche evolution, and the extent to which these patterns are modified by underlying gradients in biogeography and species' ecology. We quantified climatic niches, latitudinal distribution and ecological traits for 7657 (~75%) bird species based on geographical range polygons, and then used Bayesian phylogenetic analyses to test whether niche evolution was related to species richness and rates of diversification across genus and family-level clades. We found that the rate of climatic niche evolution has a positive linear relationship with both species richness and diversification rate at two different taxonomic levels (genus and family). Furthermore, this positive association between labile climatic niches and diversification was detected regardless of variation in clade latitude or key ecological traits. Our findings suggest either that rapid adaptation to unoccupied areas of climatic niche space promotes avian diversification, or that diversification promotes adaptation. Either way, we propose that climatic niche evolution is a fundamental process regulating the link between climate and biodiversity at global scales, irrespective of the geographical and ecological context of speciation and extinction.
Data from: Superior discrimination for hue than for saturation and an explanation in terms of correlated neural noise
The precision of human colour discrimination depends on the region of colour space in which measurements are made and on the direction in which the compared colours—the discriminanda—differ. Working in a MacLeod–Boynton chromaticity diagram scaled so that thresholds at the white point were equal for the two axes, we made measurements at reference points lying on lines that passed at 45° or −45° through the white point. At a given reference chromaticity, we measured thresholds either for saturation (i.e. for discriminanda lying radially along the line passing through the white point) or for hue (i.e. for discriminanda lying on a tangent of a circle passing through the reference point and centred on the white point). The discriminanda always straddled the reference point in chromaticity. The attraction of this arrangement is that the two thresholds can be expressed in common units. All that differs between saturation and hue measurements is the phase with which the short-wave signal is combined with the long-/middle-wave signal. Except for chromaticities very close to the white point, saturation thresholds were systematically higher than hue thresholds. We offer a possible explanation in terms of correlated neural noise.
Data from: Tracking transcription factor mobility and interaction in Arabidopsis roots with fluorescence correlation spectroscopy
To understand complex regulatory processes in multicellular organisms, it is critical to be able to quantitatively analyze protein movement and protein-protein interactions in time and space. During Arabidopsis development, the intercellular movement of SHORTROOT (SHR) and subsequent interaction with its downstream target SCARECROW (SCR) control root patterning and cell fate specification. However, quantitative information about the spatio-temporal dynamics of SHR movement and SHR-SCR interaction is currently unavailable. Here, we quantify parameters including SHR mobility, oligomeric state, and association with SCR using a combination of Fluorescent Correlation Spectroscopy (FCS) techniques. We then incorporate these parameters into a mathematical model of SHR and SCR, which shows that SHR reaches a steady state in minutes, while SCR and the SHR-SCR complex reach a steady-state between 18 and 24 hours. Our model reveals the timing of SHR and SCR dynamics and allows us to understand how protein movement and protein-protein stoichiometry contribute to development.
Data from: Faithfulness-boost effect: loyal teammate selection correlates with skill acquisition improvement in online games
The problem of skill acquisition is ubiquitous and fundamental to life. Most tasks in modern society involve the cooperation with other subjects. Notwithstanding its fundamental importance, teammate selection is commonly overlooked when studying learning. We exploit the virtually infinite repository of human behavior available in Internet to study a relevant topic in anthropological science: how grouping strategies may affect learning. We analyze the impact of team play strategies in skill acquisition using a turn-based game where players can participate individually or in teams. We unveil a subtle but strong effect in skill acquisition based on the way teams are formed and maintained during time. "Faithfulness-boost effect" provides a skill boost during the first games that would only be acquired after thousands of games. The tendency to play games in teams is associated with a long-run skill improvement while playing loyally with the same teammate significantly accelerates short-run skill acquisition.
Data from: Tolerance to gamma radiation in the tardigrade Hypsibius dujardini from embryo to adult correlate inversely with cellular proliferation
Tardigrades are highly tolerant to desiccation and ionizing radiation but the mechanisms of this tolerance are not well understood. In this paper, we report studies on dose responses of adults and eggs of the tardigrade Hypsibius dujardini exposed to gamma radiation. In adults the LD50/48h for survival was estimated at ~ 4200 Gy, and doses higher than 100 Gy reduced both fertility and hatchability of laid eggs drastically. We also evaluated the effect of radiation (doses 50 Gy, 200 Gy, 500 Gy) on eggs in the early and late embryonic stage of development, and observed a reduced hatchability in the early stage, while no effect was found in the late stage of development. Survival of juveniles from irradiated eggs was highly affected by a 500 Gy dose, both in the early and the late stage. Juveniles hatched from eggs irradiated at 50 Gy and 200 Gy developed into adults and produced offspring, but their fertility was reduced compared to the controls. Finally we measured the effect of low temperature during irradiation at 4000 Gy and 4500 Gy on survival in adult tardigrades, and observed a slight delay in the expressed mortality when tardigrades were irradiated on ice. Since H. dujardini is a freshwater tardigrade with lower tolerance to desiccation compared to limno-terrestrial tardigrades, the high radiation tolerance in adults, similar to limno-terrestrial tardigrades, is unexpected and seems to challenge the idea that desiccation and radiation tolerance rely on the same molecular mechanisms. We suggest that the higher radiation tolerance in adults and late stage embryos of H. dujardini (and in other studied tardigrades) compared to early stage embryos may partly be due to limited mitotic activity, since tardigrades have a low degree of somatic cell division (eutely), and dividing cells are known to be more sensitive to radiation.
Data from: Fine-Scale Mapping of Recombination Rate in Drosophila Refines its Correlation to Diversity and Divergence
Regional rates of recombination often correlate with levels of nucleotide diversity, and either selective or neutral hypotheses can explain this relationship. Regional recombination rates also correlate with nucleotide differences between human and chimpanzee, consistent with models where recombination is mutagenic; however, a lack of correlation is observed in the Drosophila melanogaster group, consistent with models invoking natural selection. Here, we revisit the relationship among recombination, diversity, and interspecies difference by generating empirical estimates of these parameters in Drosophila pseudoobscura. To measure recombination rate, we genotyped 1,294 backcross hybrids at 50 markers across the largest assembled linkage group in this species. Genome-wide diversity was estimated by sequencing a second isolate of D. pseudoobscura at shallow coverage. Alignment to the sequenced genome of the closely related species, Drosophila persimilis, provided nucleotide site orthology. Our findings demonstrate that scale is critical in determining correlates to recombination rate: fine-scale cross-over rate estimates are far stronger predictors of both diversity and interspecies difference than broad-scale estimates. The correlation of fine-scale recombination rate to diversity and interspecies difference appears to be genome-wide, evidenced by examination of an X-linked region in greater detail. Because we observe a strong correlation of cross-over rate with interspecies difference, even after correcting for segregating ancestral variation, we suggest that both mutagenic and selective forces generate these correlations, the latter in regions of low crossing over. We propose that it is not cross-overs per se that are mutagenic, but rather repair of DNA double-strand break precursors via crossing over and gene conversion.
Data from: Adaptive and non-adaptive evolution of trait means and genetic trait correlations for herbivory resistance and performance in an invasive plant
The EICA-hypothesis predicts that invading plants adapt to their novel environment by evolving increased performance and reduced resistance in response to the release from natural enemies, and assumes a resource allocation tradeoff among both trait groups as mechanistic basis of this evolutionary change. Using the plant Silene latifolia as a study system, we tested these predictions by investigating whether 1) invasive populations evolved lower resistance and higher performance, 2) this evolutionary change is indeed adaptive, and 3) there is a negative genetic correlation among performance and resistance (i.e. a tradeoff) in native and introduced individuals. We sampled eight native and eight invasive populations and determined their population co-ancestry based on neutral SSR-markers. We performed controlled crossings to produce five sib-groups per population and exposed them to increased and reduced levels of enemy attack in a full-factorial experiment to estimate performance and resistance. With these data, we performed trait-by-trait comparisons between ranges with 'animal models' that account for population co-ancestry to quantify the amount of variance in traits explained by non-adaptive vs. adaptive evolution. Moreover, we tested for genetic correlations among performance and resistance traits within sib-groups. We found significant reductions in resistance and increases in performance in invasive versus native populations, which could largely be attributed to adaptive evolution. While we detected a non-significant trend towards negative genetic performance × resistance correlations in native populations, invasive populations exhibited both significant and non-significant positive correlations. In summary, these results do not support a shift of performance and resistance trait values along a tradeoff line in response to enemy release, as predicted EICA. They rather suggest that the independent evolution of both traits is not constrained by a tradeoff, and that various selective agents (including resource availability) interact in shaping both traits and in weakening negative genetic correlations in the invaded habitat.
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Allen Brain Atlas
Allen Brain Atlas is an Allen Institute collection of brain map atlases, datasets, APIs, and analysis tools covering mouse, human, and non-human primate brain resources.
Annotated Behaviour and Observability Dataset (ABODe)
ABODe is a University of Edinburgh DataShare dataset for behavior classification in group-housed mice using home-cage video, identities, bounding boxes, ground-plate positions, and annotator labels.
DANDI Archive for NWB datasets
DANDI is a BRAIN Initiative archive for publishing and sharing neurophysiology data, including electrophysiology, optophysiology, and behavioral data packaged as NWB and related standards.
International Brain Laboratory public data
The International Brain Laboratory public data releases expose standardized mouse decision-making experiments, including Neuropixels recordings, widefield calcium imaging, behavior, and session metadata accessed through the ONE API.
OpenNeuro
OpenNeuro is a free, open platform for sharing neuroimaging datasets, with public search, dataset pages, and download paths for web, S3, DataLad, and the OpenNeuro CLI.