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Data from: Actuarial senescence in a dimorphic bird: different rates of aging in morphs with discrete reproductive strategies

It is often hypothesized that intra-sexual competition accelerates actuarial senescence, or the increase in mortality rates with age. However, an alternative hypothesis is that parental investment is more important to determining senescence rates. We used a unique model system, the white-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis), to study variation in actuarial senescence. In this species, genetically-determined morphs display discrete mating strategies and disassortative pairing, providing an excellent opportunity to test the predictions of the above hypotheses. Compared to tan-striped males, white-striped males are more polygynous and aggressive, and less parental. Tan-striped females receive less parental support, and invest more into parental care than white-striped females, which are also more aggressive. Thus, higher senescence rates in males and white-striped birds would support the intra-sexual competition hypothesis, whereas higher senescence rates in females and tan-striped birds would support the parental investment hypothesis. White-striped males showed the lowest rate of actuarial senescence. Tan-striped females had the highest senescence rate, and tan-striped males and white-striped females showed intermediate, relatively equal rates. Thus, results were inconsistent with sexual selection and competitive strategies increasing senescence rates. Rather, results suggest that senescence may be accelerated by female-biased parental care, and lessened by sharing of parental duties.

opencc-zeroDec 2019View details →

Data from: Parental age effects and the evolution of senescence

Most theory on the evolution of senescence implicitly assumes that all offspring are of equal quality. However, in addition to age-related declines in survival and fecundity (classically-defined senescence), many organisms exhibit age-related declines in offspring quality, a phenomenon known as a parental age effect. Theoretical work suggests that parental age effects may alter age-trajectories of selection and therefore shape the evolution of senescence; however, to date, these analyses have been limited to idealized life cycles, and models of maternal care in human populations. To gain a broader understanding of how parental age effects may shape age-trajectories of selection, we extend the classic age-structured population projection model to also account for parental age structure, and apply this model to empirical data from an aquatic plant known to exhibit parental age effects (the duckweed Lemna minor), as well as a diverse set of simulated life cycles. Our results suggest that parental age effects alter predictions from classic theory on the evolution of senescence. Age-related declines in offspring quality reduce the relative value of late-life reproduction, leading to steeper age-related declines in the force of natural selection than would otherwise be expected, and potentially favoring the evolution of more rapid rates of senescence.

Data from: Preoperative characteristics of working-age patients undergoing total knee arthroplasty

Objective Total Knee Arthroplasty (TKA) is performed more in working-age (<65 years) patients. Until now, research in this patient population has been conducted mainly among retired (≥65 years) patients. Aim of this study was therefore to describe demographic, physical, psychological and social characteristics of working TKA patients and to subsequently compare these characteristics with retired TKA patients and the general population. Methods A cross-sectional analysis. Preoperative data of 152 working TKA patients was used. These data were compared with existing data of retired TKA patients in hospital registers and with normative values from literature on the general population. Demographic, physical, psychological and social (including work) characteristics were analyzed. Results The majority (83.8%) of working TKA patients was overweight (42.6%) or obese (41.2%), a majority (72.4%) was dealing with two or more comorbidities, and most (90%) had few depressive symptoms. Mean physical activity level was 2950 minutes per week. Compared to the retired TKA population, working TKA patients perceived significantly more stiffness and better physical functioning and vitality, were more physically active, and perceived better mental health. Compared to the general population working TKA patients perceived worse physical functioning, worse physical health and better mental health, and worked fewer hours. Conclusion This study shows that a majority of working TKA patients are overweight/obese, have multiple comorbidities, but are highly active in light-intensity activities and have few depressive symptoms. Working patients scored overall better on preoperative characteristics than retired patients, and except for physical activity scored overall worse than the general population.

Data from: How maternal investment varies with environmental factors and the age and physiological state of wild tsetse Glossina pallidipes and Glossina morsitans morsitans

Theory suggests females should optimize resource allocation across reproductive bouts to maximize lifetime reproduction, balancing current and future reproductive efforts according to physiological state and projected survival and reproduction. Tests of these ideas focus on long-lived vertebrates: few measure age-related reproductive output in iteroparous invertebrates, or partition reserves between those allocated to offspring versus mothers. We investigated how maternal age, and environmental and physiological factors influence reproductive investment in wild tsetse, Glossina pallidipes Austen and G. morsitans morsitans Westwood. Tsetse provide a tractable system to measure reproductive allocation. Females exhibit high maternal investment, producing single, large offspring that rely exclusively on maternal reserves. We find that mothers in better physiological condition and experiencing cooler temperatures produce larger offspring. Pupal size increases significantly but weakly with age. In both species, females with less fat invest proportionately more in offspring. Post-partum fat decreases in flies with badly frayed wings: poor flight capability may limit their feeding efficiency, or they may sacrifice more reserves as a terminal investment. Our results support evidence that offspring size increases with maternal size, investment depends on the environment, and females with lower chances of future reproduction invest more into current offspring. We discuss the implications of maternal effects for predicting vector population responses to environmental change.

opencc-zeroDec 2015View details →

Data from: How old are you? Genet age estimates in a clonal animal

Foundation species such as redwoods, seagrasses and corals are often long-lived and clonal. Genets may consist of hundreds of members (ramets) and originated hundreds to thousands of years ago. As climate change and other stressors exert selection pressure on species, the demography of populations changes. Yet, because size does not indicate age in clonal organisms, demographic models are missing data necessary to predict the resilience of many foundation species. Here, we correlate somatic mutations with genet age of corals and provide the first, preliminary estimates of genet age in a colonial animal. We observed somatic mutations at five microsatellite loci in rangewide samples of the endangered coral, Acropora palmata (n = 3352). Colonies harboured 342 unique mutations in 147 genets. Genet age ranged from 30 to 838 years assuming a mutation rate of 1.195−04 per locus per year based on colony growth rates and 236 to 6500 years assuming a mutation rate of 1.542−05 per locus per year based on sea level changes to habitat availability. Long-lived A. palmata genets imply a large capacity to tolerate past environmental change, and yet recent mass mortality events in A. palmata suggest that capacity is now being frequently exceeded.

Data from: A function-valued trait approach to estimating the genetic basis of size at age and its potential role in fisheries induced evolution

Natural selection is inherently a multivariate phenomenon. The selection pressure on size (natural and artificial) and the age at which selection occurs is likely to induce evolutionary changes in growth rates across the entire life history. However, the covariance structure that will determine the path of evolution for size-at-age has been studied in only a few fish species. We therefore estimated the genetic covariance function for size throughout ontogeny using Atlantic silversides (Menidia menidia) as the model system. Over a 3-year period, a total of 542 families were used to estimate the genetic covariance in length at age from hatch through maturity. The function-valued trait approach was employed to estimate the genetic covariance functions. A Bayesian hierarchical model was used to account for the unbalanced design, unequal measurement intervals, unequal sample sizes, and family-aggregated data. To improve mixing, we developed a two-stage sampler using a Gibbs sampler to generate the posterior of a well-mixing approximate model followed by an importance sampler to draw samples from posterior of the completely specified model. We found that heritability of length is age-specific and there are strong genetic correlations in length across ages that last 30d or more. We used these estimates in a hypothetical model predicting the evolutionary response to harvesting following a single generation of selection under both sigmoidal and unimodal patterns of gear selectivity to illustrate the potential outcomes of ignoring the genetic correlations. In these scenarios genetic correlations were found to have a strong effect on both the direction and magnitude of the response to harvest selection.

Data from: Wintering areas predict age-related breeding phenology in a migratory passerine bird

Understanding connections between breeding, stopover and wintering grounds for long-distance migratory birds can provide important insight into factors influencing demography and the strength of carry-over effects among various periods of the annual cycle. Using previously described, multi-isotope (δ13C, δ15N, δ2H) feather isoscapes for Africa, we identified the most probable wintering areas for house martins (Delichon urbica) breeding at Badajoz in southwestern Spain. We identified two most-probable wintering areas differing in latitude in West Africa. We found that the probability to winter in the northern region was related to age and sex of individuals. Specifically, experienced males (i.e., two years or older) winter in the northern area with a greater probability than experienced females, whereas first-year females winter in the northern area with a greater probability than first-year males. In addition, wintering area was correlated with breeding phenology, with individuals wintering in the northern area initiating their clutches earlier than those wintering in the southern area. For birds wintering in the northern area, there was no relationship between age and clutch initiation date. In contrast, young birds wintering in the southern area initiated their clutches earlier than experienced birds wintering in this area. There was no significant correlation between wintering area and clutch size or the number of fledglings produced. We hypothesize that the relationship among social status, population density and winter habitat quality should be the most important driver of the carry-over effect we found for this population

opencc-zeroDec 2013View details →

Data from: Eliminating variation in age at spawning leads to genetic divergence within a single salmon population

Most coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch in Washington state spawn at 3 y of age, creating the potential for three temporal populations or "broodlines" at each spawning site. This is generally prevented by a portion of males in each site that mature and reproduce at 2 y of age, resulting in population structure in which the geographic component is stronger than the temporal component. The Quilcene National Fish Hatchery, located on Big Quilcene River in the Hood Canal region of Washington state, selected against late returning coho salmon by excluding all but the earliest returning fish from its broodstock for an unknown number of generations, and restricted gene flow among broodlines by excluding 2-y-old males for 27 generations. The resulting hatchery population exhibited three distinct broodlines that returned in alternating years: an "early" broodline that arrived 1 mo before the wild fish, a "late" broodline that arrived at the same time as the wild fish, and a "middle" broodline that arrived in between these two broodlines. We evaluated temporal and geographic components of population genetic structure in coho salmon from the Quilcene National Fish Hatchery and nine other sites from Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca using 10 microsatellite loci. Genetic diversity at the Quilcene National Fish Hatchery was lowest in the early broodline and highest in the late broodline. Divergence among broodlines was generally much lower than divergence among sites, rendering the term broodline irrelevant for most sites. Divergence among broodlines at the Quilcene National Fish Hatchery, however was greater than that observed at any other site, and was also greater than that observed between any of the sites. This apparent reversal of the relative magnitudes of temporal and geographic components for this species emphasizes the importance of variable age-at-maturity in shaping population genetic structure.

opencc-zeroDec 2015View details →

Data from: Anatomy, systematics, paleoenvironment, growth, and age of the sauropod dinosaur Sonorasaurus thompsoni from the Cretaceous of Arizona, USA

Sauropod dinosaurs are rare in the Cretaceous North American fossil record in general and are absent from that record for most of the Late Cretaceous. Sonorasaurus thompsoni from the Turney Ranch Formation of the Bisbee Group of Arizona, USA, potentially represents one of the youngest sauropods before their ca. 30-million-year-long hiatus from the record. The anatomy of Sonorasaurus has only been briefly described, its taxonomic validity has been questioned, several hypotheses have been proposed regarding its phylogenetic relationships, and its life history, geologic age, and reported paleoenvironment are ambiguous. Herein we assess the systematics, paleoenvironment, life history, and geologic age of Sonorasaurus based on firsthand observation, bone histology, and fieldwork in the holotypic quarry and environs. The validity of S. thompsoni is substantiated by autapomorphies. Cladistic analysis firmly places it within the Brachiosauridae, in contrast to results of some recent analyses. Bone histology suggests that the only known exemplar of Sonorasaurus grew slowly and sporadically compared to other sauropods and was approaching its adult size. In contrast with previous assessments of a coastal/estuarine paleoenvironment for the Turney Ranch Formation, our sedimentological and plant macrofossil data indicate that Sonorasaurus lived in a semiarid, low relief evergreen woodland that received highly variable (perhaps seasonal) precipitation. We obtained detrital zircons from the holotypic quarry for U-Pb dating, which only yielded Barremian-aged and older grains, whereas other radiometric and biostratigraphic data suggest that the sediments at the quarry were deposited near the Albian-Cenomanian boundary. Sonorasaurus is taxonomically valid, represents one of the geologically youngest brachiosaurid sauropods, and inhabited a harsh inland evergreen-dominated woodland environment that limited its growth. A review of other Bisbee Group dinosaurs suggests that its fauna, although poorly sampled, exhibits broad similarity to those from coeval North American horizons, reinforcing the apparent faunal homogeneity at the time.

opencc-zeroDec 2013View details →

Data from: A model for non-equilibrium metapopulation dynamics utilizing data on species occupancy, patch ages and landscape history

1. The distribution pattern of many species reflects the past rather than the current structure of landscapes. Consequently, species are most often not in equilibrium with the current landscape structure. Yet this is a well-known fact, there is no appropriate approach to estimate the colonization rate of non-equilibrium species based on only data on the species occurrence pattern in the landscape. 2. We present an approach to estimate the colonization rate of non-equilibrium metapopulations. The approach requires only data on species presence/absence among its patches (occurrence pattern), data on patch ages and data on the historic distribution of the patches in the landscape. By estimating the past occurrence patterns and colonization events leading to the current pattern of occupied and non-occupied patches, we estimate the colonization rate, including the dispersal kernel. We also show how to estimate effects of local patch conditions and how to include an independent estimate of the local extinction rate based on other data. We use nine epiphytic lichen species confined to beech trees to illustrate the method. 3. Five species had restricted dispersal range, between 200 and 4700 m, and their colonization rate decreased with increasing fragmentation. Species colonization rates were related to niche width. Among the demographic parameters, the force of colonization was more important than the dispersal range in explaining the colonization rates. Local patch conditions did not explain the colonization probability of any species. In metapopulation projections that did not account for restricted dispersal range, higher future metapopulation sizes were projected. 4. Synthesis. The presented approach uses data on only species occurrence, patch age and landscape history to estimate the species colonization rate and dispersal kernel. It can also utilize independent data on local extinction rate. Rather than identifying factors explaining the occurrence pattern, the model estimates the rate of change in the occurrence pattern. This dynamic modelling allows testing general and applied questions on the dynamics or viability of metapopulations of sessile species. The approach is applicable for species whose distribution pattern reflects the past rather than the current landscape structure, e.g. certain epiphytes and ground-floor plants.

opencc-zeroDec 2010View details →

Data from: Differential aging of bite and jump performance in virgin and mated Teleogryllus commodus crickets

Evolutionary theories of aging state that the force of natural selection declines with age, resulting in trait senescence. However, sexual selection theory predicts that costly traits that signal mate value should increase in expression as survival prospects decline. Mortality rates and fertility tend to show strong signatures of senescence, whereas sexual signalling traits increase with age, but how the expression of traits such as whole-organism performance measures that are subject to both sexual and non-sexual selection should change with age is unclear. We examined the effects of both a key life-history event (mating) and diet quality (male and female optimal diets) on aging in two whole-organism performance traits (bite force and jump take-off velocity) in male and female Teleogryllus commodus crickets. We found no evidence for diet effects on any of the measured traits. Aging effects were more evident in females than in males for both jumping and biting, and constitute a mix of senescence and terminal investment patterns depending on sex/mating class. Sex and mating therefore have important implications for resource allocation to performance traits, and hence for aging of those traits, and interactions between these two factors can result in complex changes in trait expression over individual lifetimes.

Data from: Chronological and biological age predict seasonal reproductive timing: an investigation of clutch initiation and telomeres in birds of known age

Female vertebrates that breed earlier in the season generally have greater reproductive success. However, evidence suggests that breeding early may be costly, thus leading to the prediction that females with fewer future reproductive events will breed earlier in the season. While chronological age is a good indicator of remaining lifespan, telomere lengths may also be good biomarkers of longevity as they potentially reflect lifetime 'wear and tear' (i.e. "biological age"). We examined whether variation in the timing of the first seasonal clutch was related to age and telomere length in female dark-eyed juncos (Junco hyemalis), predicting that older females and those with shorter telomeres would breed earlier. Both predictions held true and were independent of each other, as telomere length did not significantly vary with age. These results suggest that females may adjust their reproductive effort based on both chronological and biological age.

Data from: Age-related parasite load and longevity patterns in the sedge warbler Acrocephalus schoenobaenus

We report the results from a nine-year study on parasite infection in males of a small migrant passerine, the sedge warbler Acrocephalus schoenobaenus. Every year, for each male caught during territory establishment we estimated infection intensity of two lineages of Haemoproteus belopolskyi (SW1 and SW3), using molecular methods. We found a significant relationship between infection intensity and males' longevity in both studied lineages. There was severe mortality of second-year sedge warblers after their first breeding season, with lower parasite load in survivors. The lower infection intensity in older age classes was related to between-individual change in both lineages, but was also a result of differences in infection intensity during the lifetime of individual males in the SW3. The relation between parasite load and longevity suggests that parasite load may be an age-dependent factor influencing individual survival.

opencc-zeroDec 2015View details →

Data from: Sea-level driven glacial-age refugia and post-glacial mixing on subtropical coasts, a palaeohabitat and genetic study

Using a novel combination of palaeohabitat modelling and genetic mixture analyses, we identify and assess a sea-level-driven recolonization process following the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Our palaeohabitat modelling reveals dramatic changes in estuarine habitat distribution along the coast of California (USA) and Baja California (Mexico). At the LGM (approx. 20 kya), when sea level was approximately 130 m lower, the palaeo-shoreline was too steep for tidal estuarine habitat formation, eliminating this habitat type from regions where it is currently most abundant, and limiting such estuaries to a northern and a southern refugium separated by 1000 km. We assess the recolonization of estuaries formed during post-LGM sea-level rise through examination of refugium-associated alleles and approximate Bayesian computation in three species of estuarine fishes. Results reveal sourcing of modern populations from both refugia, which admix in the newly formed habitat between the refuges. We infer a dramatic peak in habitat area between 15 and 10 kya with subsequent decline. Overall, this approach revealed a previously undocumented dynamic and integrated relationship between sea-level change, coastal processes and population genetics. These results extend glacial refugial dynamics to unglaciated subtropical coasts and have significant implications for biotic response to predicted sea-level rise.

opencc-zeroAug 2019View details →

Data from: Comparing ageing and the effects of diet supplementation in wild vs. captive antler flies, Protopiophila litigata

1) Few studies have simultaneously compared ageing within genetically similar populations in both laboratory and natural environments. Such comparisons are important for interpreting laboratory studies, because factors such as diet could affect ageing in environment-dependent ways. 2) Using a natural population of antler flies (Protopiophila litigata), we conducted separate factorial experiments in 2012 and 2013 that compared age-specific male survival and mating success in laboratory cages versus a natural field environment while supplementing their diets with protein or sugar. 3) We found consistent and substantial increases in both survival and mating rates in the laboratory compared to the field, but remarkably, despite these large differences actuarial ageing was only higher in the lab than in the field in 2012 and similar in the two environments in 2013. In both years, there was no difference between environments in reproductive ageing. 4) We found that males fed protein had a higher mortality rate than males fed sugar (strong and low support in 2012 and 2013 respectively). 5) In contrast, diet did not strongly impact average mating rates, actuarial ageing, or reproductive ageing in either experiment. 6) Our results provide the first evidence that the negative effect of protein on lifespan reported in many laboratory studies can also occur in wild populations, although perhaps less consistently. They also highlight how laboratory environments can influence life history traits and suggest caution when extrapolating from the laboratory to the field.

Data from: Aging in an herbaceous plant: increases in mortality and decreases in physiology and seed mass

1. Little is known about plant age-dependent trait expression and how environmental conditions might affect aging in the wild. This study evaluates age variation in multiple traits of a short-lived perennial herb using a manipulative field experimental design. 2. Two different-aged cohorts were followed in a field plot for over a year to evaluate trait expression in response to a competition treatment and seasonal stress. Traits measured included size, mortality, reproduction, and physiology, including photosynthetic efficiency and chlorophyll content (SPAD). We hypothesized that the stress of competition and seasonal changes would accentuate age-dependent trait declines in older plants. 3. The results highlight consistent age differences in plant size, mortality, and seed size with older plants being smaller, more likely to die, and producing smaller seeds. Some of the aging declines were sensitive to environmental conditions such that it was only during certain seasons when older plants had higher mortality, lower photosynthetic efficiency, and lower chlorophyll content than young plants. Age-dependent trait expression also varied in response to competition such that age differences in size were only present in the 'no competition treatment,' and old individuals in the competition treatment had a higher mortality than all other age-environment combinations. 4. Synthesis. These findings show that aging in plants is a complex phenotype where declines in traits are uncoordinated and can be, but are not always, sensitive to environmental conditions. This study shows age-dependent maternal effects on offspring quality which, together with the decline in performance of older individuals, may have impacts on an individual's fitness and on natural population demography.

opencc-zeroDec 2014View details →

Data from: Longitudinal study of performance on the Ruff Figural Fluency Test in persons aged 35 years or older

The Ruff Figural Fluency Test (RFFT) is a cognitive test to measure executive function. Longitudinal studies have shown that repeated testing improves performance on the RFFT. Such a practice effect may hinder the interpretation of test results in a clinical setting. Therefore, we investigated the longitudinal performance on the RFFT in persons aged 35–82 years. Performance on the RFFT was measured three times over an average follow-up period of six years in 2,515 participants of the Prevention of REnal and Vascular ENd-stage Disease (PREVEND) study in Groningen, the Netherlands: 53% men; mean age (SD), 53 (10) years. The effect of consecutive measurements on performance on the RFFT was investigated with linear multilevel regression models that also included age, gender, educational level and the interaction term consecutive measurement number x age as independent variables. It was found that the mean (SD) number of unique designs on the RFFT increased from 73 (26) at the first measurement to 79 (27) at the second measurement and to 83 (26) at the third measurement (p<0.001). However, the increase per consecutive measurement number was negatively associated with age and decreased with 0.23 per one-year increment of age (p<0.001). The increase per consecutive measurement number was not dependent on educational level. Similar results were found for the median (IQR) number of perseverative errors which showed a small but statistically significant increase with repeating testing: 7 (3–13) at the first measurement, 7 (4–14) at the second measurement and 8 (4–15) at the third measurement (ptrend = 0.002). In conclusion, the performance on the RFFT improved by repeating the test over an average follow-up period of three to six years. This practice effect was the largest in young adults and not dependent on educational level.

opencc-zeroDec 2019View details →

Data from: Telomere length is repeatable, shortens with age and reproductive success, and predicts remaining lifespan in a long-lived seabird

Telomeres are protective caps at the end of chromosomes, and their length is positively correlated with individual health and lifespan across taxa. Longitudinal studies have provided mixed results regarding the within-individual repeatability of telomere length. While some studies suggest telomere length to be highly dynamic and sensitive to resource-demanding or stressful conditions, others suggest that between-individual differences are mostly present from birth and relatively little affected by the later environment. This dichotomy could arise from differences between species, but also from methodological issues. In our study, we used the highly reliable Terminal Restriction Fragment analysis method to measure telomeres over a 10-year period in adults of a long-lived seabird, the common tern (Sterna hirundo). Telomeres shortened with age within individuals. The individual repeatability of age-dependent telomere length was high (> 0.53), and independent of the measurement interval (i.e. 1 vs. 6 years). A small (R2 = 0.01), but significant part of the between-individual variation in telomere length was, however, explained by the number of fledglings produced in the previous year, while reproduction in years prior to the previous year had no effect. We confirmed that age-dependent telomere length predicted an individual's remaining lifespan. Overall, our study suggests that the majority of between-individual variation in adult telomere length is consistent across adult life, and that a smaller part of the variation can be explained by dynamic factors, such as reproduction.

Data from: Maternal diet and age alter direct and indirect relationships between life history traits across multiple generations

1. Maternal age has important consequences for offspring fitness, with influences on size, development, and reproductive schedules. Such maternal age effects may be driven by differential provisioning of resources, yet little is known about the role of environmental supply of nutritional resources in mediating such effects. 2. We tested the influence of limiting nutritional resource, dietary phosphorus (P), on maternal age effects across multiple generations by examining the potential interactive effects of maternal nutrition and age on daughter and granddaughter life history traits in the freshwater crustacean Daphnia pulicaria. 3. Maternal age and diet had significant but contrasting effects on offspring life history. We did not observe any evidence that age effects on offspring life history are mediated by maternal diet. However, granddaughter growth and size at maturation were influenced by the interaction between grandmaternal age and diet, suggesting that the appearance of transgenerational effects of age and diet were delayed by one generation. 4. Because offspring life history is often linked directly and/or indirectly to life history variation in previous generations, we utilized structural equation modeling (SEM) to assess such direct or indirect relationships. 5. SEM revealed striking differences in the relationship between growth, development time, and fecundity both within and among generations, depending on the age and diet in the F0 generation. Interestingly, direct and persistent relationships between the F0 generation and the F2 generation are most prevalent when grandmothers are old and fed low P diets, and such relationships are largely driven by fecundity in the F0 generation. Additionally, indirect causal relationships between the F0 generation and F2 generation are most pronounced when grandmothers are young and fed low P diets or when grandmothers are old and fed high P diets. 6. Our results indicate that transgenerational effects of maternal age and environment persist across multiple generations, and vary between successive generations. Further, our examination of the interaction network between life history traits of each generation suggest that the mechanisms for such persistent transgenerational effects are highly dependent on maternal condition.