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FIGURE 4. Majority-rule consensus tree derived from a in Revision and phylogeny of narrow-mouthed treefrogs (Cophyla) from northern Madagascar: integration of molecular, osteological, and bioacoustic data reveals three new species

FIGURE 4. Majority-rule consensus tree derived from a partitioned Bayesian inference analysis of concatenated DNA sequences of the 12S, 16S, COX1, COB, RAG1, KIAA1239, SACS, and TTN genes (6244 bp), showing relationships among species of the Cophylinae. Numbers at nodes are posterior probabilities (first number; values>0.95 bold) and maximum parsimony bootstrap values in percent (second value;>70% bold). The grey box highlights the included species of the genera Cophyla and Platypelis, which form two highly supported and reciprocally monophyletic groups.

FIGURE 2 in Revision and phylogeny of narrow-mouthed treefrogs (Cophyla) from northern Madagascar: integration of molecular, osteological, and bioacoustic data reveals three new species

FIGURE 2. Phylogenetic tree of species and candidate species in the genus Cophyla. Majority-rule consensus tree derived from a partitioned Bayesian inference analysis of concatenated DNA sequences of the 12S, 16S, COX1, COB, and RAG1 genes (2627 bp), showing relationships among species of Cophyla. Numbers at nodes are posterior probabilities (only values>0.9 shown). For the three new species described herein the tree also shows their candidate species names according to Perl et al. (2014).

FIGURE 1 in Revision and phylogeny of narrow-mouthed treefrogs (Cophyla) from northern Madagascar: integration of molecular, osteological, and bioacoustic data reveals three new species

FIGURE 1. The three nominal species of Cophyla known to date: (a) C. phyllodactyla calling male, Nosy Be (voucher number unknown); (b) C. phyllodactyla, Nosy Be (voucher number unknown); (c) C. phyllodactyla, Manongarivo (ZSM 842/2003); (d) C. berara, Berara (holotype, ZSM 410/2000); (e) C. occultans, Nosy Be (voucher number unknown).

FIGURE 10 in Revision and phylogeny of narrow-mouthed treefrogs (Cophyla) from northern Madagascar: integration of molecular, osteological, and bioacoustic data reveals three new species

FIGURE 10. Ventral view of shoulder girdle, showing differences in shoulder girdle structure between species and candidate species of Cophyla and Platypelis, based on micro-CT scans. Clavicle (missing in most Cophyla, present in in C. puellarum and as far as known in all Platypelis) coloured in red (all scale bars 1 mm). (a) C. maharipeo sp. nov., ZSM 3252/2012, from Joffreville; (b) C. noromalalae sp. nov., ZSM 3273/2012, from entrance of Montagne d'Ambre National Park; (c) C. puellarum sp. nov., UADBA-A 60237, from Point de Vue du Grand Moulin, Montagne d'Ambre National Park; (d) P. cf. barbouri, NSH 2587, from Manombo Special Reserve; (e) P. pollicaris, NSH 2419, from Ranomafana National Park.

FIGURE 6 in Revision and phylogeny of narrow-mouthed treefrogs (Cophyla) from northern Madagascar: integration of molecular, osteological, and bioacoustic data reveals three new species

FIGURE 6. Comparative call data of partial call series of six species of Cophyla. C. occultans recorded in February 1995, 25˚C; C. berara recorded in February 2000, 23.5˚C; C. phyllodactyla, recorded in February 1992, 26˚C; C. maharipeo sp. nov., UADBA-A 60232, recorded in January 2012, ca 25˚C; C. noromalalae sp. nov., ZSM 3273/2012, recorded in November 2012, ca 20˚C; C. puellarum sp. nov., UADBA-A 60237, recorded in November 2012, ca 17˚C. Recordings of C. berara, C. occultans, and C. phyllodactyla are from Vences et al. (2005). The initial intensity peaks at each call of C. maharipeo and C. puellarum probably represent an artefact of the recording device, or an abnormal sound emission of the recorded specimens.

FIGURE 17 in Revision and phylogeny of narrow-mouthed treefrogs (Cophyla) from northern Madagascar: integration of molecular, osteological, and bioacoustic data reveals three new species

FIGURE 17. Audiospectrogram and oscillogram of two advertisement calls (part of a longer call series) of Cophyla puellarum sp. nov. recorded from paratype specimen UADBA-A 60237, at Point de Vue du Grand Moulin in Montagne d'Ambre National Park, on 10 December 2012, air temperature of ca 17˚C. The sounds above 2500 Hz represent other frogs or insects, and the initial intensity peaks at each call probably represent an artefact of the recording device or an abnormal sound emission of the recorded specimens.

FIGURE 13 in Revision and phylogeny of narrow-mouthed treefrogs (Cophyla) from northern Madagascar: integration of molecular, osteological, and bioacoustic data reveals three new species

FIGURE 13. Audiospectrogram and oscillogram of two advertisement calls (part of a longer call series) of Cophyla maharipeo sp. nov. from paratype UADBA-A 60232, recorded at Joffreville on 17 January 2012, ca 25˚C, number of recording DR089. The sounds above 3000 Hz represent other frogs or insects, and the initial intensity peaks at each call probably represent an artefact of the recording device or an abnormal sound emission of the recorded specimen.

FIGURE 12 in Revision and phylogeny of narrow-mouthed treefrogs (Cophyla) from northern Madagascar: integration of molecular, osteological, and bioacoustic data reveals three new species

FIGURE 12. Ventral sides of the holotypes of the three newly described Cophyla species from Montagne d'Ambre and Joffreville, photographed from living specimens. Inset photos show the same specimens in dorsolateral view. (a) C. maharipeo sp. nov., male holotype ZSM 3251/2012, Joffreville; (b) C. noromalalae sp. nov., male holotype ZSM 3250/2012, park entrance, male; (c) C. puellarum sp. nov., male holotype ZSM 3249/2012, Point de Vue du Grand Moulin.

FIGURE 3. Majority-rule consensus tree derived from a in Revision and phylogeny of narrow-mouthed treefrogs (Cophyla) from northern Madagascar: integration of molecular, osteological, and bioacoustic data reveals three new species

FIGURE 3. Majority-rule consensus tree derived from a partitioned Bayesian inference analysis of DNA sequences of the nuclear RAG1 gene (503 bp), showing relationships among species of Cophyla. Numbers at nodes are posterior probabilities (only values>0.9 shown). The tree was rooted with the same outgroups as in Fig. 2 (removed for better graphical representation).

FIGURE 16 in Revision and phylogeny of narrow-mouthed treefrogs (Cophyla) from northern Madagascar: integration of molecular, osteological, and bioacoustic data reveals three new species

FIGURE 16. Specimens of C. puellarum sp. nov. in life: (a) calling male paratype ZSM 3274/2012; (b) male holotype, ZSM 3249/2012; (c) male UADBA-A 60237; observed calling; (d) juvenile ZSM 0781/2009, (e) ovigerous female ZSM 3275/2012. Specimens in b, c, e from Point de Vue du Grand Moulin in Montagne d'Ambre National Park. Specimen in d from Lac Maudit.

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Data for: Nestling mouth colors mediate parental favoritism but minimally influence detectability

<p>Young animals often solicit care from their parents using behaviors and morphologies collectively termed begging. Many nestling altricial birds add to their familiar postures and vocalizations by displaying colorful mouthparts, hypothesized to enhance their visual conspicuousness and/or signal information about individual quality. We evaluated these hypotheses with three experimental manipulations of the flange tissue of house sparrow (<em>Passer domesticus</em>) nestlings. We allowed parents to interact with nestlings that appeared to have either carotenoid-rich or carotenoid-poor flanges, and then with nestlings that appeared similar in carotenoid-richness but differed in either brightness (total light reflected) or ultraviolet richness. These three features of flange color comprise much of the variation observed both within and among species. Neither our manipulation of apparent carotenoid- nor UV-richness shaped parents' ability to transfer prey efficiently to nestlings, a proxy for how visually detectable nestlings were. We found some evidence that brightness shaped parents' ability to transfer large prey items. Parents preferentially allocated prey to nestlings that appeared carotenoid-rich, but did not bias allocation when we manipulated brightness or UV reflectance. These patterns suggest that nestlings displaying carotenoid-rich flanges benefit from parental favoritism, and that any role of brightness in offspring-parent interactions comes via detectability benefits. UV reflectance does not seem to shape parental care. Efforts to understand mouth color in the context of offspring-parent communication and visual signal evolution may benefit from considering the component parts of color, as they may function, be constrained, and evolve independently.</p>

Figure 1. Spionidae larval morphology. A, 16 in Origin of the pointed snout in Scolelepis and the mouth region in spionid polychaetes (Annelida: Spionidae)

Figure 1. Spionidae larval morphology. A, 16-chaetiger larva, leħ lateral view. B, 26-chaetiger larva, ventral view. C, 32-chaetiger larva, leħ lateral view. D, 29-chaetiger larva, leħ lateral view. Scale bars: A, 50 µm; B–D, 100 µm. A–C, Scolelepsis goodbodyi. D, Spionidae sp. A–D, São Sebastião, São Paulo, Brazil.

Figure 8. Spionidae head composition. A in Origin of the pointed snout in Scolelepis and the mouth region in spionid polychaetes (Annelida: Spionidae)

Figure 8. Spionidae head composition. A, Dispio sp., anterior end, ventral view. B, same, leħ lateral view, palps missing. C, Malacoceros vulgaris (Johnston 1827), anterior end, ventral view. D, same, leħ lateral view, palps missing. E, Laonice sp., anterior end, ventral view. F, same, leħ lateral view, palps missing. Abbreviations: lp, lateral peristomial lip; pr, prostomium; s1, segment 1; vp, ventral peristomial lip. Scale bars: A, B, 200 µm; C–F, 100 µm. A, B, Andros Is., Bahamas (USNM 42735). C, D, Sandgerđi, Iceland (USNM 1014839). E, F, Carrie Bow Cay, Caribbean Sea, Belize (USNM 1459258).

Figure 5. Scolelepis juvenile and adult morphology. A, complete 40 in Origin of the pointed snout in Scolelepis and the mouth region in spionid polychaetes (Annelida: Spionidae)

Figure 5. Scolelepis juvenile and adult morphology. A, complete 40-chaetiger juvenile, leħ lateral view. B, anterior end of a 60-chaetiger adult, frontal view. C, D, F, anterior ends, dorsal view. E, palps of the specimen shown on B. G, anterior end, leħ lateral view, leħ palp missing. Abbreviations: la, ciliated lateral organ; lp, lateral peristomial lip; nt, nototroch; nu, nuchal organ; pa, palp scar; pp, pointed peristomial process; sh, basal sheath on palp; s1, s2, segments 1, 2; arrow shows boundary between the pointed peristomial process and the prostomium. Scale bars: A, 200 µm; B–D, F, G, 100 µm; E, 50 µm. A, B, E, S. goodbodyi, São Sebastião, São Paulo, Brazil (MZUSP 251). C, Scolelepis sp. A, Paranaguá Bay, Paraná, Brazil. D, Scolelepis sp. B, Peter the Great Bay, Sea of Japan, Russia (MIMB). F, G, Scolelepis sp. C, Peter the Great Bay, Sea of Japan, Russia (MIMB).

Figure 4. Scolelepis juvenile and adult morphology. A, S in Origin of the pointed snout in Scolelepis and the mouth region in spionid polychaetes (Annelida: Spionidae)

Figure 4. Scolelepis juvenile and adult morphology. A, S. goodbodyi, anterior end of a 40-chaetiger juvenile, leħ lateral view, showing pointed peristomial process basally enveloped by prostomium in a tube-like manner; arrow ring indicates directions of encasement that occurred during individual seưlement and metamorphosis. B, S. goodbodyi, anterior end of a 60-chaetiger adult, leħ frontolateral view. C, S. aff. squamata, anterior end, dorsal view, both palps regenerating. D, same, leħ lateral view. E, S. cf. texana, anterior end, ventral view, showing small mouth bordered laterally by two lateral peristomial lips and ventrally by anterior extensions of segments 1 and 2. F, same, leħ lateral view, palps missing. Abbreviations: la, ciliated lateral organ; lp, lateral peristomial lip; nt, nototroch; nu, nuchal organ; pp, pointed peristomial process; pr, prostomium; sh, basal sheath on palp; s1, segment 1; s2, segment 2; arrows show boundary between the pointed peristomial process and the prostomium. Scale bars: A, B, D, 50 µm; C, E, F, 100 µm. A, B, São Sebastião, São Paulo, Brazil (MZUSP 251). C–F, Carrie Bow Cay, Caribbean Sea, Belize.

Figure 3. Scolelepis metamorphosis. A in Origin of the pointed snout in Scolelepis and the mouth region in spionid polychaetes (Annelida: Spionidae)

Figure 3. Scolelepis metamorphosis. A, anterior end of a 25-chaetiger larva, pressed dorso-ventrally, showing two median peristomial processes situated in line below the conical prostomium, ventrolateral view. B, same, showing cilia tuħ retracted by fibres inside the medioventral peristomial process. C, anterior end of a 26-chaetiger larva, ventral view, showing cilia tuħ protruding outside the medioventral peristomial process. D, anterior end of a 32-chaetiger larva, ventral view, showing solid medioventral peristomial process without fibres inside. E, same, leħ lateral view. F, anterior end of a 38-chaetiger male, dorsal view. Abbreviations: bo, boss with non-motile cilia within the patch of motile nuchal cilia; ci, cilia tuħ; fi, internal fibres; lp, lateral peristomial lip; pa, palp; ph, palpophore; pp, medioventral peristomial process; pr, prostomium; pt, prototroch; vp, ventral peristomial lip; arrows show boundary between the pointed peristomial rostrum and the prostomium. Scale bars: A, C–F, 20 µm; B, 10 µm. A–F, S. goodbodyi, São Sebastião, São Paulo, Brazil.

Figure 2. Scolelepis larval morphology. A, 25 in Origin of the pointed snout in Scolelepis and the mouth region in spionid polychaetes (Annelida: Spionidae)

Figure 2. Scolelepis larval morphology. A, 25-chaetiger larva of Scolelepis sp., leħ lateral view. B, anterior end, leħ lateral view. C, D, same, dorsal view. E, same, ventral view. F, same, fronto-ventral view. Abbreviations: br, provisional serrated bristles; ca, caruncle; cp, ciliated pit; ga, gastrotrochs; lp, lateral peristomial lip; mo, mouth; ne, neurotroch; nu, nuchal organ; pa, palp; pp, medioventral peristomial process; pr, prostomium; pt, prototroch, py, pygidium; te, telotroch. Scale bars: A, C, E, F, 100 µm; B, D, 50 µm. A–F, Carrie Bow Cay, Belize, Caribbean Sea (USNM 1459502).

Figure 7 in Origin of the pointed snout in Scolelepis and the mouth region in spionid polychaetes (Annelida: Spionidae)

Figure 7. Schematic presentation of head composition in Spionidae. A–E, Scolelepis sp.: A, 2-chaetiger larva; B, 3-chaetiger larva; C; developed 25-chaetiger larva; D, newly seưled juvenile; E, adult. F, Polydora sp. 3-chaetiger larva. G, Polydora sp. developed larva. H, Spio sp. adult. I, Polydora sp. adult. J, Aonides sp. adult. All objects in ventral view. Lateral peristomial lips of larvae and derivatives of these larval lips in adults are marked with grey.

Figure 10. Spionidae head composition. A, B in Origin of the pointed snout in Scolelepis and the mouth region in spionid polychaetes (Annelida: Spionidae)

Figure 10. Spionidae head composition. A, B, Paraprionospio sp., anterior ends, leħ lateral view. C, Aonides mayaguezensis Foster 1969, anterior end, ventral view. D, same, leħ lateral view, palps missing. E, F, Poecilochaetus trilobatus Imajima 1989, anterior end, fronto-ventral view, palps missing. Abbreviations: do, dorsal ciliated fold; lp, lateral peristomial lip; pa, palp; pr, prostomium; sh, basal sheath on palp; s1, s2, segments 1, 2; tu, prostomial tubercle; vp, ventral peristomial lip. Scale bars: A, B, E, F, 100 µm; C, D, 50 µm. A, B, North Carolina, USA (USNM 64109). C, D, Carrie Bow Cay, Caribbean Sea, Belize (USNM 1459211). E, F, Peter the Great Bay, Sea of Japan, Russia (USNM 1022171).

Figure 6. Scolelepis larval morphology. A, B, 25 in Origin of the pointed snout in Scolelepis and the mouth region in spionid polychaetes (Annelida: Spionidae)

Figure 6. Scolelepis larval morphology. A, B, 25-chaetiger larva of Scolelepis sp., anterior chaetigers, leħ ventrolateral view. Abbreviations: br, provisional serrated bristles; ca, caruncle; la, ciliated lateral organ; ne, neuropodial postchaetal lamella; no, notopodial postchaetal lamella; nu, nuchal organ; pa, palp; ph, palpophore; pt, prototroch; s1, s2, segments 1, 2. Scale bars: A, B, 50 µm. A, B, Carrie Bow Cay, Belize, Caribbean Sea (USNM 1459502).