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Fig. 14. Distribution maps. A in Studies in Liocranidae (Araneae): a new afrotropical genus featuring a synapomorphy for the Cybaeodinae

Fig. 14. Distribution maps. A. Cteniogaster hexomma sp. nov. (●), C. toxarchus gen. et sp. nov. (*). B. Cteniogaster lampropus sp. nov. (▲), C. nana sp. nov. (Ǫ). C. Cteniogaster taxorchis sp. nov. (□), C. conviva sp. nov. (■), C. sangarawe sp. nov. (Δ).

Fig. 11. A in Studies in Liocranidae (Araneae): a new afrotropical genus featuring a synapomorphy for the Cybaeodinae

Fig. 11. A. Cteniogaster toxarchus gen. et sp. nov. Tip of male palp, ventral view. B-D. Cteniogaster hexomma sp. nov. B. Tip of male palp, ventral view. C. Tip of male tarsus IV, retrolateral view. D. Bent male tarsus IV. E. Cteniogaster toxarchus gen. et sp. nov., tip of male tarsus IV. F. Apostenus spinimanus (Koch & Berendt, 1854), tip of male tarsus IV. G. Apostenus fuscus Westring, 1851, tip of male tarsus IV. H. Arabelia pheidoleicomes Bosselaers, 2009, tip of female tarsus IV. Scale bars: D = 200 μm; A-C, E-G = 100 μm. Abbreviations: C = conductor; E = embolus; MA = median apophysis.

Fig. 9 in Studies in Liocranidae (Araneae): a new afrotropical genus featuring a synapomorphy for the Cybaeodinae

Fig. 9. Cteniogaster toxarchus gen. et sp. nov. A. Ƌ, habitus, dorsal view. B. Idem, abdomen, ventral view. C. Idem, palp, ventral view. D. Idem, retrolateral view. E. Epigyne, ventral view. F. ♀, carapace, lateral view. G. Ƌ, carapace, lateral view. H. ♀, carapace, dorsal view. Scale bars: A-C, F-H = 0.5 mm, C-E = 0.25 mm.

Fig. 10 in Studies in Liocranidae (Araneae): a new afrotropical genus featuring a synapomorphy for the Cybaeodinae

Fig. 10. Cteniogaster hexomma sp. nov. A. Ƌ, habitus, dorsal view. B. Idem, abdomen, ventral view. C. Idem, palp, ventral view. D. Idem, retrolateral view. E. Epigyne, ventral view. F. ♀, carapace, anterior view. Scale bars: A-B, F = 0.5 mm, C-E = 0.25 mm.

Fig. 8 in Studies in Liocranidae (Araneae): a new afrotropical genus featuring a synapomorphy for the Cybaeodinae

Fig. 8. SEM pictures of female genitalia. A-C. Cteniogaster conviva sp. nov. A. Dorsal view, arrow indicates perforations. B. Detail of previous. C. Idem, seen at different angle. D-F. Cteniogaster toxarchus gen. et sp. nov. D. Dorsal view. E. Detail of other specimen, arrow indicates perforations. F. Detail of previous. G-H. Cteniogaster hexomma sp. nov. G. Dorsal view, arrow indicates peforations. H. Detail of previous. Scale bars = A, D, G-H = 50 µm; B, C = 10 µm; E = 20 µm; F = 5 µm.

Fig. 4. Female genitalia, ventral view. A, C, E in Studies in Liocranidae (Araneae): a new afrotropical genus featuring a synapomorphy for the Cybaeodinae

Fig. 4. Female genitalia, ventral view. A, C, E: cleared in methyl salicylate. A-B. Cteniogaster toxarchus gen. et sp. nov. C-D. Cteniogaster hexomma sp. nov. E-F. Cteniogaster lampropus sp. nov. Scale bars = 0.1 mm.

Fig. 1 in Studies in Liocranidae (Araneae): a new afrotropical genus featuring a synapomorphy for the Cybaeodinae

Fig. 1. Strict consensus of three Fttest trees obtained under implied weighting for 25 liocranid species and two corinnid outgroup species. State changes are indicated on the tree for 47 out of the 99 characters used, ambiguous character state changes were optimized individually (see text for details). Non-homoplasious state changes are in black, homoplasious state changes in white. Nodes are numbered on the tree and Goloboff Ft Bremer support values, as reported in TNT, are indicated in italics below branches.

Fig. 7 in Studies in Liocranidae (Araneae): a new afrotropical genus featuring a synapomorphy for the Cybaeodinae

Fig. 7. Cteniogaster hexomma sp. nov. A-D. ♀. A. Spinnerets, posterior view. B. ALS. C. PLS. D. PMS. E-F. Ƌ. E. Spinnerets, posterior view. F. PLS + PMS. Scale bars: A, E-F = 50 μm; C-D = 20 μm; B = 10 μm.

Fig. 6 in Studies in Liocranidae (Araneae): a new afrotropical genus featuring a synapomorphy for the Cybaeodinae

Fig. 6. Cteniogaster hexomma sp. nov. A. Ƌ, carapace, dorsal view. B. Detail of previous. C. ♀, setae on venter of abdomen. D. Ƌ, group of modiFed setae on venter of abdomen. E. Detail of previous. F. Detail of seta surrounding patch of modiFed setae. G. ♀, trichobothrium on tibia I. H. ♀, tarsal claws leg I. I. ♀, tarsal organ leg I. Scale bars: A = 0.5 mm; D = 50 μm; B, H = 20 μm; C, E = 10 μm; F, G, I = 5 μm.

Fig. 3. A-B in Studies in Liocranidae (Araneae): a new afrotropical genus featuring a synapomorphy for the Cybaeodinae

Fig. 3. A-B. Cteniogaster sangarawe sp. nov. A. ♀, habitus, ventral view. B. Idem, dorsal view. C-D. Cteniogastertaxorchis sp.nov. C. ♀, prosoma, dorsalview. D. Idem, ventral view. E-G. Cteniogaster nana sp. nov. E. Ƌ, habitus, ventral view. F. Idem, abdomen, ventral view. G. Idem, habitus, dorsal view. H-J. Cteniogaster lampropus sp. nov. H. ♀, prosoma, dorsal view. I. Idem, habitus, dorsal view. J. Idem, ventral view. Scale bars: A-D, F-J = 0.5 mm; E = 0.2 mm.

Fig. 5. Female genitalia, dorsal view. A, C, E in Studies in Liocranidae (Araneae): a new afrotropical genus featuring a synapomorphy for the Cybaeodinae

Fig. 5. Female genitalia, dorsal view. A, C, E: cleared in methyl salicylate. A-B. Cteniogaster conviva sp. nov. C-D. Cteniogaster sangarawe sp. nov. E-F. Cteniogaster taxorchis sp. nov. Scale bars = 0.1 mm.

Fig. 2. A-D in Studies in Liocranidae (Araneae): a new afrotropical genus featuring a synapomorphy for the Cybaeodinae

Fig. 2. A-D. Cteniogaster conviva sp. nov. A. Ƌ, habitus dorsal view. B. Idem, ventral view. C. ♀, habitus, dorsal view. D. Idem, ventral view. E-H. Cteniogaster toxarchus gen. et sp. nov. E. Ƌ, habitus dorsal view. F. Idem, ventral view. G. ♀, habitus, dorsal view. H. Idem, ventral view. I-P. Cteniogaster hexomma sp. nov. I. ♀, prosoma, dorsal view. J. Idem, habitus, dorsal view. K. Idem, abdomen, ventral view. L. Idem, habitus, ventral view. M. Idem, Ƌ, habitus, dorsal view. N. Idem, prosoma, dorsal view. O. Idem, habitus, ventral view. P. Idem, abdomen, ventral view. Scale bars: A-O = 0.5 mm; P = 0.2 mm.

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text-fig. 58. Diagrams showing how character distribution in a cladogram indicates gaps in the fossil record, a, arrangement of three taxa in a cladogram; synapomorphies a-f support the monophyly of the clade (B-C). B, if gradual acquisition of characters is assumed, several taxa must be missing in the phylogeny between taxon A and clade (B-C). The number of taxa missing is positively (though not necessarily linearly) correlated with the number of synapomorphies that diagnose any given node. in The interrelationships and evolution of basal theropod dinosaurs

text-fig. 58. Diagrams showing how character distribution in a cladogram indicates gaps in the fossil record, a, arrangement of three taxa in a cladogram; synapomorphies a-f support the monophyly of the clade (B-C). B, if gradual acquisition of characters is assumed, several taxa must be missing in the phylogeny between taxon A and clade (B-C). The number of taxa missing is positively (though not necessarily linearly) correlated with the number of synapomorphies that diagnose any given node.

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FIGURE 2 in Are hind coxal knobs a synapomorphy for therevids? An unusual new species of Anabarhynchus Macquart from Australia (Diptera: Therevidae: Therevinae)

FIGURE 2. Anabarhynchus oblongicornus sp. nov., terminalia. Male: A, epandrium; B, same lateral; C, gonocoxites, ventral; D, tergite 8, lateral; E, gonocoxites, lateral; F, same, dorsal; G, aedeagus, dorsal; H, same, lateral. Female: I, sternite 8, ventral; J, distal reproductive complex. Scale line= 0.2 mm.

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FIGURE 1 in Are hind coxal knobs a synapomorphy for therevids? An unusual new species of Anabarhynchus Macquart from Australia (Diptera: Therevidae: Therevinae)

FIGURE 1. Anabarhynchus oblongicornus sp. nov., A, male head, lateral; B, frontal. Scale line= 0.5 mm.

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FIGURE 1 in Implementation as theory, hierarchy as transformation, homology as synapomorphy

FIGURE 1. The anatomy of a cladistic analysis. a. A cladistic analysis recovers branching diagrams (cladograms) from a data matrix (e.g., binary or parenthesis matrix). The characater-state relationships (homologs) may be interpreted phylogenetically as transformations; b.The data matrix is analysed by a computer program that produces a cladogram. The phylogenetic tree is created through human interpretation only; c.#A data matrix contains ordered data, which is converted to a branching diagram (cladogram) using a computer program. The cladogram depicted here is based on character 1 (namely, a character tree). The character-states are treated as synapomorphies within A{B{C,D}, where C and D share character-state 0 or, the states can be shown as a relationship, namely 0{1,1}. In the phylogenetic tree, the character-states are shown as grouped plesiomorphies and apomorphies. The transformation is inferred by the person viewing the tree; d. The function of the data matrix is to show which character-states are ascribed to taxa. The cladogram represents a classification in order to identify monophyly, while a phylogenetic tree interprets a classification through transformation; e. the data matrix and cladogram represent homologs. In the phylogenetic tree, homologs are interpreted to be derived or reversed (apomorphic) or plesiomorphic (primitive).

Figure 2 in The 'twins' and the 'bachelor', new potential synapomorphies inside the Cholevinae (Coleoptera: Leiodidae)

Figure 2. Mesotarsus, Cholevinae: Ptomaphagini - Adelopsis leo, articulation between tarsomeres I (below) and II (above). A, lateral-external view. B, ventral view. C, lateral-internal view. bs = 'bachelor seta'; tw = 'twin spines'; arrow = additional slender setae; stars = periapical spines of the apical crown of spines.

Figure 8 in The 'twins' and the 'bachelor', new potential synapomorphies inside the Cholevinae (Coleoptera: Leiodidae)

Figure 8. Mesotarsus, Cholevinae: Anemadini. A, Nemadina – Nemadus colonoides, female. B, C, Paracatopina – Paracatops alacris. D, Anemadina – Anemadus italicus. A, C, ventro-lateral-external view. B, D, ventro-lateral-internal view. tI-tIV = first to fourth tarsomeres; bs = 'bachelor seta'.

Figure 9 in The 'twins' and the 'bachelor', new potential synapomorphies inside the Cholevinae (Coleoptera: Leiodidae)

Figure 9. Mesotarsus, Cholevinae: Cholevini: Catopina and Cholevina, and Oritocatopini. A, B, Catops fuliginosus. C, D, Catopsimorphus (s.s.) orientalis. E, F, Afrocatops sp. A, C, E, ventro-lateral-internal view; B, D, F, ventro-lateral-external view. tI-tIV = first to fourth tarsomeres.

Figure 1 in The 'twins' and the 'bachelor', new potential synapomorphies inside the Cholevinae (Coleoptera: Leiodidae)

Figure 1. Midleg, Cholevinae: Ptomaphagini - Adelopsis leo. A, dorsal/internal view. B, ventral/external view. C, a hypothetical cross-section of a tarsomere of the left leg, showing what we refer to as the dorsal ('df'), internal lateral ('ilf'), ventral ('vf') and external lateral ('elf') faces of the tarsomere, as well as the inner ('icv') and external ('ecv') 'corners' of the ventral face of the tarsomere. Fe = femur; Ta = tarsus; Ti = tibia.