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FIGURE 1 in A hangingfly (Mecoptera, Bittacidae) from the late Oligocene Fossillagerstätte Enspel, Westerwald (SW Germany)

FIGURE 1. Approximate geographical position of the Enspel site. State of Rhineland-Palatinate shown in red.

FIGURE 2 in A hangingfly (Mecoptera, Bittacidae) from the late Oligocene Fossillagerstätte Enspel, Westerwald (SW Germany)

FIGURE 2. Eremobittacus opeth sp. nov., holotype, part NHMMZ PE 2006/5031-LSa. A, Photograph. B, Sketch drawing. Scale bars = 10 mm.

FIGURE 6 in A hangingfly (Mecoptera, Bittacidae) from the late Oligocene Fossillagerstätte Enspel, Westerwald (SW Germany)

FIGURE 6. Eremobittacus opeth sp. nov., holotype NHMMZ PE 2006/5031-LS. Hind tarsus. A, Counterpart. B, Part. C, Combination of part and counterpart. D, Sketch drawing. Scale bars = 1 mm.

FIGURE 5 in A hangingfly (Mecoptera, Bittacidae) from the late Oligocene Fossillagerstätte Enspel, Westerwald (SW Germany)

FIGURE 5. Eremobittacus opeth sp. nov., holotype, part NHMMZ PE 2006/5031-LSa. Sketch drawings of left (labelled) and right forewings, respectively. Scale bar = 10 mm.

FIGURE 4 in A hangingfly (Mecoptera, Bittacidae) from the late Oligocene Fossillagerstätte Enspel, Westerwald (SW Germany)

FIGURE 4. Eremobittacus opeth sp. nov., holotype NHMMZ PE 2006/5031-LS. A, B, Forewings from part. A, Left forewing. B, Right forewing. C, Detail of counterpart showing head with proboscis and thoracic region. Scale bars = 5 mm.

FIGURE 3 in A hangingfly (Mecoptera, Bittacidae) from the late Oligocene Fossillagerstätte Enspel, Westerwald (SW Germany)

FIGURE 3. Eremobittacus opeth sp. nov., holotype, counterpart NHMMZ PE 2006/5031-LSb. A, Photograph. B, Sketch drawing. Scale bars = 10 mm.

FIGURE 8. Camachoaster maquedensis n in Late Oligocene - Miocene non-lunulate sand dollars of South America: Revision of abertellid taxa and descriptions of two new families, two new genera, and a new species

FIGURE 8. Camachoaster maquedensis n. sp., details of test features. A: Holotype MACN-Pi 5809, pencil marks indicating partial aboral plate architecture in region within and around petal in ambulacrum II, gonopores indicated by white arrows, pores of trailing tube feet by black arrows. B: Paratype MACN-Pi 5859, complete aboral ambulacrum IV showing shape of petal. C: Holotype MACN-Pi 5809, details of tuberculation, food groove (black arrow), and peristome (peristomial projection indicated by white arrow). All scale bars 10 mm in length.

FIGURE 6. Camachoaster maquedensis n in Late Oligocene - Miocene non-lunulate sand dollars of South America: Revision of abertellid taxa and descriptions of two new families, two new genera, and a new species

FIGURE 6. Camachoaster maquedensis n. sp., photographs of the oral surfaces of paratypes. A: MACN-Pi 5859, prepared specimen with pencil marks indicating plate architecture. B: MACN-Pi 5860, partially prepared specimen with pencil marks indicating plate architecture, faint tuberculation, and main branches of food grooves. Scale bars 10 mm in length.

FIGURE 5. Camachoaster maquedensis n in Late Oligocene - Miocene non-lunulate sand dollars of South America: Revision of abertellid taxa and descriptions of two new families, two new genera, and a new species

FIGURE 5. Camachoaster maquedensis n. sp., photographs of the holotype MACN-Pi 5809. Oral surface shows pencil marks indicating some of the plate architecture. Scale bar 10 mm in length.

FIGURE 4 in Late Oligocene - Miocene non-lunulate sand dollars of South America: Revision of abertellid taxa and descriptions of two new families, two new genera, and a new species

FIGURE 4. Comparison of oral plate architecture of Iheringiella patagonensis (Desor, 1847) (based on ROM 5433M), Abertella gualichensis Martínez et al., 2005 (based on the holotype, MACN-Pi 4706), Abertella pirabensis (Marchesini Santos, 1958) (reconstruction based on the holotype and only known specimen, DNPM 4493, details of interambulcrum 2 inferred by comparison with interambulacrum 4, and of ambulacrum V by comparison with ambulacrum I), and Placatenella complanata (Brito, 1981) (based on the holotype, MNRJ 5460-I, as well as MNRJ 5536-I, MPEG 886-I, MPEG 2405-I). Food grooves indicated by dotted lines, peristome and periproct in solid black, interambulacra shaded, scale bars 10 mm in length.

FIGURE 9 in Late Oligocene - Miocene non-lunulate sand dollars of South America: Revision of abertellid taxa and descriptions of two new families, two new genera, and a new species

FIGURE 9. Abertella pirabensis (Marchesini Santos, 1958), photographs of the holotype, DNPM 4493. A: Aboral surface. B: Oral surface. C. Strongly side-lighted detail of posterior edge showing notch (white arrow), food groove (black arrow), tuberculation, and periproct (p). D. Oblique, nearly edge-on view of posterior edge showing notch (white arrow) and periproct (p). Scale bars 10 mm in length.

FIGURE 2 in Late Oligocene - Miocene non-lunulate sand dollars of South America: Revision of abertellid taxa and descriptions of two new families, two new genera, and a new species

FIGURE 2. Placatenella complanata (Brito, 1981), photographs. A: Aboral surface of holotype, MNRJ 5460-I. B: Oral surface of holotype, MNRJ 5460-I. C: Aboral surface of MNRJ 5536-I, with deep, narrow posterior notch. D: Oral surface of MNRJ 5536-I. Scale bars 10 mm in length.

FIGURE 7 in Late Oligocene - Miocene non-lunulate sand dollars of South America: Revision of abertellid taxa and descriptions of two new families, two new genera, and a new species

FIGURE 7. Comparison of oral plate architecture of Camachoaster maquedensis n. sp. (based on paratypes MACN-Pi 5859 and 5860) and Camachoaster? kewi (= Abertella kewi Durham, 1957) (based on specimens from UCMP locality B8562, Chiapas, Mexico). Food grooves indicated by dotted lines, peristome and periproct in solid black, interambulacra shaded, scale bars 10 mm in length.

FIGURE 1 in Late Oligocene - Miocene non-lunulate sand dollars of South America: Revision of abertellid taxa and descriptions of two new families, two new genera, and a new species

FIGURE 1. Localities for taxa discussed in the text. Inset at lower left centers on the Santa Cruz region of Patagonia. Numbered occurrences correspond to unequivocal Iheringiella patagonensis localities (inside boxed region in main map): 1. Pampa Castillo, Chile (Andre Wyss, pers. comm.); 2. Cañadón El Lobo, Santa Cruz, Argentina (CPBA 16493-95); 3. Oven Point/Sholl's Tomb, Santa Cruz, Argentina (Ortmann 1902), Punta Cuevas, Santa Cruz, Argentina (MACN 4586 and Cuitiño 2011), Playa La Mina, Santa Cruz, Argentina (Cuitiño 2011); 4. Meseta Chica, Bajo de San Julián, Santa Cruz, Argentina (MACN 5144 and Cuitiño 2011); 5. Upper Rio Chalia, Santa Cruz, Argentina (Ortmann 1902); 6. Puerto Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, Argentina (ROM 5433M, 5468M, 5469M); 7. Sector Flamenco, Tierra del Fuego, Chile (Larrain 1984)—reported to be from Eocene strata, but this is questionable (Mooi et al. 2000).

FIGURE 3 in Late Oligocene - Miocene non-lunulate sand dollars of South America: Revision of abertellid taxa and descriptions of two new families, two new genera, and a new species

FIGURE 3. Placatenella complanata (Brito, 1981), photographs. A: Detail of petal in ambulacrum III of MPEG 886-I showing pores of trailing tube feet (arrow indicating most distal pore pair). B: Detail of oral surface near posterior edge of MPEG 2405-I showing periproct at margin, inside notch (p), and continuity of posterior interambulacral post-basicoronals with basicoronal 1 (arrow). Scale bars 10 mm in length.

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Supplementary information for: A new tiny fossil penguin from the Late Oligocene of New Zealand and the morphofunctional transition of the penguin wing

The Late Oligocene is a period of high penguin diversity, following major changes in the marine environment at the Eocene/Oligocene boundary and prior to the emergence of crown penguins in the Miocene. Historically, a large morphological gap existed between the most crownward Platydyptes among the Oligocene penguins from New Zealand and the Early Miocene stem penguins such as Palaeospheniscus and Eretiscus from South America. Here we describe a new species that contributes to filling this gap. Pakudyptes hakataramea gen. et sp. nov. is the earliest tiny penguin, overlapping in size with the smallest extant species, the little penguin Eudyptula minor. Its distinctive combination of a well-developed proximal end of the humerus and a rather archaic elbow joint provides clues to the evolution of penguin wings. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that penguin wings evolved rapidly from the Late Oligocene to the Early Miocene, together with the acquisition of morphofunctional and hydrodynamical characteristics that enable the excellent swimming ability of modern penguins. As an indicator of aquatic adaptation, bone microanatomy also shows a comparable structure to that of Eudyptula. The appearance of the smallest body size and the evolution of modern wings may have led to the ecological diversity of modern penguins, which confirms the importance of Zealandia in penguin evolution.

Figure 2 in Fossil frogs (Eleutherodactylidae: Eleutherodactylus) from Florida suggest overwater dispersal from the Caribbean by the Late Oligocene

Figure 2. Images derived from microCT scans of fossil ilia, sacrum and urostyle of Eleutherodactylus from Florida with anatomical nomenclature. A, right ilium (UF-VP-501355) in dorsal (upper), medial (middle) and lateral (bottom) views; B, right ilium (UF-VP-501352) in dorsal (upper), medial (middle) and lateral (bottom) views; C, sacrum (UF-VP-497977) in anterior (upper), dorsal (second), posterior (third) and ventral (bottom) views; D, urostyle (UF-VP-501321) in anterior (upper), dorsal (middle) and lateral (bottom). Anatomical abbreviations: acf, acetabular fossa; acr, acetabular rim; act, anterior cotyle; cnt, centrum; dae, dorsal acetabular expansion; dcn, dorsal canal; dcr, dorsal crest; dph, diapophysis; dpm, dorsal prominence; dpt, dorsal protuberance; dsp, dorsal spine; nac, neural arch; nsp, neural spine; paz, preacetabular zone; pcd, posterior condyle; pzy, prezygapophyses; saf, supraacetabular fossa; vae, ventral acetabular expansion.

Figure 1 in Fossil frogs (Eleutherodactylidae: Eleutherodactylus) from Florida suggest overwater dispersal from the Caribbean by the Late Oligocene

Figure 1. Biogeography of modern and extinct native North American anurans. A, time-calibrated family-level phylogeny with historical biogeographic reconstructions from Feng et al. (2017), including our additions of the extinct families Gobiatidae and Palaeobatrachidae based on phylogenetic hypotheses of Chen et al. (2016) and Cannatella (2015). Symbols with numbers on branches indicate the first appearance datum (FAD; Supporting Information, Table S1) for lineages in the fossil record of North America and are indicated on maps on the right. Families present today in North America are in bold. Symbols at the end of each branch indicate the extant distribution of the family. B, maps showing the palaeobiogeography of anurans in North America, including all fossil occurrences with taxonomic information to the family level. Fossil occurrences not assigned to family or a larger clade, 'incertae sedis', were excluded and are shown in the Supporting Information (Fig. S1; Table S1). Temporal and geographic range of fossils was derived from The Paleobiology Database (PBDB 2023).

Figure 5 in Fossil frogs (Eleutherodactylidae: Eleutherodactylus) from Florida suggest overwater dispersal from the Caribbean by the Late Oligocene

Figure 5. Results of linear and geometric morphometric analyses in Eleutherodactylus. A, correlation of Eleutherodactylus body size (snout–urostyle length, SUL) with width of the pre-acetabulum of the ilium of two species and 30 individuals illustrating intraspecific variation. B, correlation of Eleutherodactylus body size (snout–urostyle length, SUL) with width of the pre-acetabulum of the ilium and 27 species of five subgenera illustrating interspecific variation. Estimated size of fossils plotted on the regression line. A, B, show the best linear regressions to estimate body size (SUL) from extant Eleutherodactylus, additional linear regression in the Supporting Information (Fig. S7). C–F, results of 3D geometric morphometric analysis of 14 landmarks on the humerus of Eleutherodactylus showing (C) intraspecific and (D) interspecific shape variation on the humeri of extant species only and (E) intraspecific and (F) interspecific shape variation including fossils from the Late Oligocene of Florida.

Figure 4 in Fossil frogs (Eleutherodactylidae: Eleutherodactylus) from Florida suggest overwater dispersal from the Caribbean by the Late Oligocene

Figure 4. Comparisons between fossil Eleutherodactylus from Florida and isolated bones from other frog families from Florida. Images derived from microCT-scans. A, fossil Eleutherodactylus in the leftmost column: right humerus (UF-VP-501310); right radioulna (UF-VP-501323); sacrum (UF-VP-497977); urostyle (UF-VP-501321); right ilium (UF-VP-501355). B–H, specimens of extant species representing taxa present in Florida today or in the Oligocene. Additional species used for comparison are available in the Supporting Information (Figs S2, S4, Table S2) (Morphosource project ID: 000421780).