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Fig. 4 in A new gigantic titanosaurian sauropod from the early Late Cretaceous of Patagonia (Neuquén Province, Argentina)

Fig. 4. Axial skeleton of the titanosaurian sauropod Bustingorrytitan shiva gen. et sp. nov. from "Bustingorry II" site, Neuquén Province, Argentina, upper Cenomanian. A. Right dentary (holotype, MMCH-Pv 59/1) in medial (A1) and dorsal (A2) views (numbers indicate alveoli with partial teeth). B. Mid to posterior cervical vertebra (paratype, MMCH-Pv 60/1) in right ventro-lateral (B1) and anterior (B2) views. C. Sixth? or seventh? dorsal vertebra (holotype, MMCH-Pv 59/3) in left lateral (C1), anterior (C2), and posterior (C3) views. D. Haemal arch (holotype, MMCH-Pv 59/8) in right lateral (D1) and anterior (D2) views. E. Anterior caudal vertebra (holotype, MMCH-Pv 59/4) in left lateral (E1), anterior (E2), and posterior (E3) views. F. Mid-caudal vertebra (holotype, MMCH-Pv 59/6) in left lateral (F1), anterior (F2), and posterior (F3) views. G. Posterior caudal vertebra (paratype, MMCH-Pv 60/2) in anterior (G1) and left lateral (G2) views. Abbreviations: acdl, anterior centrodiapophyseal lamina; acpl, anterior centroparapophyseal lamina; a-spdl, anterior ramus of the spinodiapophyseal lamina; cpaf, centroparapophyseal fossa; cpol, centropostzygapophyseal lamina; cprl: centroprezygapophyseal lamina; d, diapophysis; hy, hyposphene; hyp, hypantrum; ns, neural spine; p, parapophysis; pacdf, parapophyseal centrodiapophyseal fossa; pcdl, posterior centrodiapophyseal lamina; pcpl, posterior centroparapophyseal lamina; pl, pleurocoel; pocdf, postzygapophyseal centrodiapophyseal fossa; podl, postzygodiapophyseal lamina; posdf, postzygapophyseal spinodiapophyseal fossa; prdl, prezygodiapophyseal lamina; prsl, prespinal lamina; prz, prezygapophysis; p-spdl, posterior ramus of the spinodiapophyseal lamina; sf, splenial furrow; spdl-f, spinodiapophyseal lamina fossa; spol, spinopostzygapophyseal lamina; spol, spinopostzygapophyseal lamina; sprl, spinoprezygapophyseal lamina; tprl, intraprezygapophyseal lamina.

Fig. 6 in A new gigantic titanosaurian sauropod from the early Late Cretaceous of Patagonia (Neuquén Province, Argentina)

Fig. 6. Pelvic and hindlimb elements of the titanosaurian sauropod Bustingorrytitan shiva gen. et sp. nov. from "Bustingorry II" site, upper Cenomanian. A. Right ilium (holotype, MMCH-Pv 59/16) in medial view. B. Right pubis (holotype, MMCH.Pv 59/19) in medial view. C. Proximal portion of right tibia (holotype, MMCH-Pv 59/31) in proximal (C1) and lateral (C2) views. D. Left tibia (paratype, MMCH-Pv 60/6) in proximal (D1), lateral (D2), and distal (D3) views. E. Proximal portion of right femur (holotype, MMCH-Pv 59/30) in anterior view. F. Distal portion of right femur (paratype, MMCH-Pv 60/5) in anterior (F1) and distal (F2) views. G. Proximal portion of right fibula (holotype, MMCH-Pv 59/32) in lateral view. H. Right phalange ungual II (holotype, MMCH-Pv 59/39) in lateral (reversed) (H1) and plantar (H2) views. I. Left astragalus (holotype, MMCH-Pv 59/34) in anterior (I1), lateral (I2), posterior (I3), distal (I4), and medial (I5) views. J. Left metatarsal I (holotype, MMCH-Pv 59/35) in dorsal (J1), medial (J2), proximal (J3) and distal (J4) views. Abbreviations: ac, acetabulum; af, articulation for the fibula; ai, articulation for the ilium; ap, ascending process; at, articulation for the tibia.

Fig. 2 in A new gigantic titanosaurian sauropod from the early Late Cretaceous of Patagonia (Neuquén Province, Argentina)

Fig. 2. Simplified section of the site showing the stratigraphical position of Bustingorrytitan shiva gen. et sp. nov. (modified from Otero et al. 2011).

Fig. 1. A in A new gigantic titanosaurian sauropod from the early Late Cretaceous of Patagonia (Neuquén Province, Argentina)

Fig. 1. A. General location map of Neuquén Province. B. Location of the fossiliferous site (asterisk) in the surroundings of Villa El Chocón, Neuquén Province (modified from Otero et al. 2011).

Fig. 7 in A new gigantic titanosaurian sauropod from the early Late Cretaceous of Patagonia (Neuquén Province, Argentina)

Fig. 7. Strict consensus of the phylogenetic analysis, after pruning the unstable taxa, showing the different alternative positions of Andesaurus (asterisk). Bremer support values higher than 1 are shown. Note: to save space only the part of the cladogram from Patagosaurus onwards is shown.

Fig. 3 in A new gigantic titanosaurian sauropod from the early Late Cretaceous of Patagonia (Neuquén Province, Argentina)

Fig. 3. Spatial distribution of skeletal elements of the titanosaurian sauropod Bustingorrytitan shiva gen. et sp. nov. from "Bustingorry II" site, Neuquén Province, Argentina, upper Cenomanian. Numbers correspond to MMCH-Pv specimens. The solid lines correspond to the materials extracted in the first field works February 1–10, 2001 (when the bones overlap in some sector, it is continued with stippled lines). The materials extracted during the second and third field works (November 30–December 9, 2001, and December 15–22, 2001), are indicated by dotted lines.

Fig. 5 in A new gigantic titanosaurian sauropod from the early Late Cretaceous of Patagonia (Neuquén Province, Argentina)

Fig. 5. Forelimb bones of the titanosaurian sauropod Bustingorrytitan shiva gen. et sp. nov. from "Bustingorry II" site, Neuquén Province, Argentina, upper Cenomanian. A. Left coracoid (holotype, MMCH-Pv 59/13) in lateral view. B. Left scapula (holotype, MMCH-Pv 59/11) in lateral view. C. Left humerus (holotype, MMCH-Pv 59/21) in proximal (C1), anterior (C2), and distal (C3) views. D. Right radius (holotype, MMCH-Pv 59/22) in posterior view. E. Left sternal plate (holotype, MMCH-Pv 59/15) in dorsal view. F. Articulated metacarpals I–V (holotype, MMCH-Pv 59/25–29) in proximal F1), anterior (F2) and distal (F3) views. G. Right ulna (holotype, MMCH-Pv 59/23) in medial (G1) and proximal (G2) views. Abbreviations: cf, coracoid foramen; gas, glenoid articular surface; igl, infraglenoid lip; I–V, metacarpals. Scale bars 200 mm.

Fig. 12 in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina

Fig. 12. Comparison of orthal bite force (BF) distribution across lower tooth-row at closed gape (CG) and open gape (OG). A. Didelphis marsupialis Linnaeus, 1758, a generalized mammal showing relatively low orthal BF magnitudes at both CG and OG. B. Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758, which shows very little ability to preserve high orthal BF at high gape among the therians sampled, but has very high orthal BF at CG. C. Crocuta crocuta (Erxleben, 1777), a taxon capable of preserving a large amount of orthal BF at high gape, and showing similar orthal BF values at CG and OG. Color bar at right is scaled to units of the combined (across-taxa) sample standard deviation in estimated orthal bite force values (generated using all muscle categories, see text). Therefore, colors within the postcanine toothrow correspond to matching, size-scaled, orthal BF magnitudes across all sampled taxa (and in Peligrotherium tropicalis as seen in Fig. 6A).

Fig. 8. 2D in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina

Fig. 8. 2D histograms showing distribution of estimated force magnitudes for Group 1 (G1) and Group 2 (G2) muscle recruitment scenarios (on ordinate), as a function of mesiodistal location (MDL; on abscissa). A. Canis familiaris. B. Crocuta crocuta. C. Diceros bicornis. D. Didephis marsupialis. E. Equus quagga. F. Erinaceus europaeus. G. Procyon lotor. H. Puma concolor. I. Sus scrofa. J. Tayassu pecari. K. Tupaia sp. L. Ursus arctos. Abbreviations: BF, bite force; JF-W/B, working-/balancing-side joint force.

Fig. 7 in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina

Fig. 7. Violin boxplots showing distribution of Group 1 minus Group 2 values (on left) and closed gape minus open gape values (on right) for N = 12 representative extant therians. A. Canis familiaris (domestic dog). B. Crocuta crocuta (spotted hyaena). C. Diceros bicornis (black rhino). D. Didephis marsupialis (opossum). E. Equus quagga (quagga). F. Erinaceus europaeus (European hedgehog). G. Procyon lotor (racoon). H. Puma concolor (mountain lion). I. Sus scrofa (domestic pig). J. Tayassu pecari (white-lipped peccary). K. Tupaia sp. (treeshrew). L. Ursus arctos (brown bear). Abbreviations: T, total bite force; O, orthal bite force. Vertical axes represent magnitude values in au.

Fig. 6 in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina

Fig. 6. Results of closed gape minus open gape analysis of orthal bite force (BF) for Peligrotherium tropicalis Bonaparte, Van Valen, and Kramarz, 1993. A. Lower left working-side hemimandible of P. tropicalis shown in closed gape (CG) and open gape (OG) position, postcanine crown surfaces are colorized by relative orthal BF (warmer colors represent higher relative orthal BF, and correspond among the taxa seen in Fig. 12). B. Violin boxplot showing distribution of total CG minus OG BF and its orthal component marginal over all locations in the woking-side postcanine toothrow. C. 2D histogram plot showing distribution of estimated bifulcral force magnitudes for CG and OG, as a function of mesiodistal location (MDL). JF-W/B, working-/balancing-side joint force.

Fig. 9. 2D in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina

Fig. 9. 2D histograms showing distribution of estimated force magnitudes for closed gape (CG) and open gape (OG) mandible positions (on ordinate), as a function of mesiodistal location (MDL; on abscissa). A. Canis familiaris. B. Crocuta crocuta. C. Diceros bicornis. D. Didephis marsupialis. E. Equus quagga. F. Erinaceus europaeus. G. Procyon lotor. H. Puma concolor. I. Sus scrofa. J. Tayassu pecari. K. Tupaia sp. L. Ursus arctos. Abbreviations: BF, bite force; JF-W/B, working-/balancing-side joint force.

Fig. 11 in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina

Fig. 11. Comparison of orthal Group 1 (G1) vs. orthal Group 2 (G2) bite force (BF) across the lower postcanine tooth-row. Warmer colors correspond to higher G1 muscle advantage, and cooler colors correspond to higher G2 advantage. A. Canis familiaris Linnaeus, 1758. B. Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758. C. Equus quagga Boddaert, 1785. Note that Sus scrofa matches Peligrotherium tropicalis most closely, in having greater G1 advantage disto-buccally and greater G2 advantage mesio-lingually. Color scale is based on range of G1 minus G2 orthal BF magnitudes scaled by the value of single sample (within-taxon) standard deviation in this value.

Fig. 10 in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina

Fig. 10. Connectivity graphs summarizing the results of pairwise randomization tests performed on the per-vertex values of orthal bite force (BF) differences. Lines connect taxa that are not found to be significantly different, and gray-scale value of individual nodes are proportional to the value of the parameter tested (e.g., dark tones are lower in value, and higher values are closer to white). A. Graph summarizing pairwise significance tests of mean Group 1 (G1) minus Group 2 (G2) orthal BF. B. Graph summarizing pairwise significance tests of F-value (variance ratio) of G1 minus G2 orthal BF. C. Graph summarizing pairwise significance tests of mean closed gape minus open gape orthal BF. D. Graph summarizing pairwise significance tests of F-value (variance ratio) of closed gape minus open gape orthal BF.

Fig. 3 in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina

Fig. 3. Comparison of 2D side-view and fully 3D definitions of parameters for the bifulcral model of mandibular leverage, shown using Didelphis marsupialis Linnaeus, 1758 as an example. A. Left side-view of mandible in closed gape position, showing the locations of the working-side condylar fulcrum green) and bite point fulcrum (blue). The example temporalis force vector (red) drives rotation about both of these fulcra, and produces output force vectors that are tangential to circles centered on their respective fulcra (dashed arcs). B. Oblique lingual view showing important points and lever arms corresponding to the working-side medial pterygoid force (MP-W; shown as a red arrow) using a fully three-dimensional model of bifulcral mandibular leverage. The very medially directed line-of-action for the medial pterygoid demonstrates the large differences in orientation between the condylar plane (CP; shown with a green transparent plane), bite plane (BP; shown with a blue transparent plane), and a parasagittal (side-view) plane. The three-dimensional bifulcral model calculates bite forces and joint forces by projecting load points into their respective planes, as distances perpendicular to these projections do not affect leverage calculations. Definition of numbered points: 1, mesial postcanine point (PM); 2, distal postcanine point (PD); 3, centroid of insertion area for working-side medial pterygoid (MP-W); 4, centroid of origin surface for MP-W on skull; 5, location of working-side joint (WJ); 6, projection of WJ into BP; 7, projection of an example bite vertex on the third lower molar into the CP. Abbreviations: BF, bite force; ILBP-W, in-lever of the bite plane on the working-side; ILCP-W, in-lever of the condylar plane on the working-side; JF-W, joint force on the working-side; MP-W, medial pterygoid working-side; OLBP-W, out-lever of the bite plane on the working-side; OLCP-W, out-lever of the condylar plane on the working-side. Not to scale.

Fig. 1 in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina

Fig. 1. Reconstruction of cranial eidonomy and osteology of the meridiolestidan mammal Peligrotherium tropicalis Bonaparte, Van Valen, and Kramarz, 1993, Punta Peligro, Argentina, Early Paleocene. A. Illustrated life reconstruction (courtesy of Amy Bishop). B. Digitized skull and mandible reconstructions produced by Paéz-Arango (2008).

Fig. 2 in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina

Fig. 2. Reconstructed skull and hemimandibles of meridiolestidan mammal Peligrotherium tropicalis Bonaparte, Van Valen, and Kramarz, 1993(digitized from models produced by Paéz-Arango 2008). A. Skull and mandibles articulated into closed gape position and showing the attachments of several major muscle groups. B. Right-inferior oblique view of lower left hemimandible and skull in open gape position. Here the left side of the skull is assumed to be the working-side (WS), and the right side the balancing-side (BS); see Tables 1 and 2. Colored tubes are the lines-of-action of their respective muscle category; matching colored surfaces represent corresponding estimated origin and insertion areas; and black spheres show the locations of corresponding origin or insertion centroids. Abbreviations: DM-W, deep masseter working-side; MP-W/B, medial pterygoid working-side/ balancing-side; PT-W, posterior temporalis muscle category working-side; SM-W, superficial masseter working-side.

Fig. 5 in Reconstructed masticatory biomechanics of Peligrotherium tropicalis, a non-therian mammal from the Paleocene of Argentina

Fig. 5. Results of Group 1 (G1) minus Group 2 (G2) analysis of orthal bite force (BF) for Peligrotherium tropicalis Bonaparte, Van Valen, and Kramarz, 1993. A. Lower left working-side hemimandible of P. tropicalis with postcanine crowns colorized by relative G1 vs. G2 advantage (yellow shows areas where G1 produces higher orthal BF, while bluer colors correspond to higher G2 BF values; white areas are where G1 and G2 forces are sub-equal). B. Violin boxplot showing distribution of total GP1 minus GP2 BF and its orthal component marginal over all locations in the postcanine tooth-row (TR). C. 2D histogram plot showing distribution of estimated bifulcral force magnitudes for G1 and G2 muscle recruitment regimes, as a function of mesiodistal location (MDL). JF-W/B, working-/balancing-side joint force.

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Fig. 7 in New records of Late Triassic wood from Argentina and their biostratigraphic, paleoclimatic, and paleoecological implications

Fig. 7. Schemes showing anatomical characters of Protophyllocladoxylon hilarioense. A. Tracheid radial pitting patterns (A1, A2). B. Cross field pitting. C. Radial system.