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FIGURE 6 in Three new species of Rasahus, with clarifications on the identities of three other Neotropical corsairs (Heteroptera: Reduviidae: Peiratinae)

FIGURE 6. Dorsal habitus: (A) Reduvius castaneus, adult female. Label data: FRENCH GUIANA: Kaw Mountains, 2 km N. Route D6, MV light, 4°33.91'N, 52°9.38'W, 22 December 2000, V. R. Block, INHS Insect Collection 780,125 [1 female] (INHS); (B) Reduvius scutellaris stat. rev. (=R. rufiventris), adult male. Label data: BRAZIL: Pará, Jacareacanga, (6°16'S, 57°44'W), 110 m., Dec. 1968, Moacir Alvarenga, Rasahus rufiventris (Walk.) det. J. Maldonado C. 1986, Rasahus scutellaris det. D. R. Swanson 2017 [1 male] (UMMZ). Scale bar = 2 mm.

FIGURE 3 in Three new species of Rasahus, with clarifications on the identities of three other Neotropical corsairs (Heteroptera: Reduviidae: Peiratinae)

FIGURE 3. Rasahus abolitus sp. nov., adult male (holotype): (A) dorsal habitus; (B) lateral habitus; (C) pronotum, dorsal view; (D) pygophore, caudal view; (E) labels. Scale bar = 2 mm.

FIGURE 1 in Three new species of Rasahus, with clarifications on the identities of three other Neotropical corsairs (Heteroptera: Reduviidae: Peiratinae)

FIGURE 1. Rasahus nesiotes sp. nov., adult female (holotype): (A) dorsal habitus; (B) lateral habitus; (C) pronotum, dorsal view; (D) terminalia, caudal view; (E) labels. Scale bar = 2 mm.

FIGURE 5 in Three new species of Rasahus, with clarifications on the identities of three other Neotropical corsairs (Heteroptera: Reduviidae: Peiratinae)

FIGURE 5. Male external genitalia: (A–C) Rasahus deliquus sp. nov.: (A) median process of pygophore; (B) left paramere; (C) right paramere; (D–F) R. abolitus sp. nov.: (D) median process of pygophore; (E) left paramere; (F) right paramere; (G–I) R. myrmecinus stat. rev. et comb. nov.: (G) median process of pygophore; (H) left paramere; (I) right paramere.

FIGURE 2 in Three new species of Rasahus, with clarifications on the identities of three other Neotropical corsairs (Heteroptera: Reduviidae: Peiratinae)

FIGURE 2. Rasahus deliquus sp. nov., adult male (holotype): (A) dorsal habitus; (B) lateral habitus; (C) pronotum, dorsal view; (D) pygophore, caudal view; (E) labels. Scale bar = 2 mm.

FIGURE 4 in Three new species of Rasahus, with clarifications on the identities of three other Neotropical corsairs (Heteroptera: Reduviidae: Peiratinae)

FIGURE 4. Map indicating type locality of Rasahus nesiotes sp. nov., R. deliquus sp. nov., and R. abolitus sp. nov.

FIGURE 8 in Three new species of Rasahus, with clarifications on the identities of three other Neotropical corsairs (Heteroptera: Reduviidae: Peiratinae)

FIGURE 8. Holotype of Pirates myrmecinus housed in ZMHB: (A) lateral habitus, left side; (B) dorsal habitus; (C) ventral habitus; (D) head, pronotum, and forelegs, left lateral view; (E) thoracic pleura, right lateral view; (F) labels. Photographed by Jürgen Deckert (ZMHB); used with permission.

FIGURE 11 in Three new species of Rasahus, with clarifications on the identities of three other Neotropical corsairs (Heteroptera: Reduviidae: Peiratinae)

FIGURE 11. Metapleural sulcus, lateral view: (A) Belizean specimen of Rasahus myrmecinus stat. rev. et comb. nov., adult male; (B) idem., adult female; (C) R. abolitus sp. nov. (holotype); (D) R. albomaculatus; (E) R. biguttatus; (F) R. setosus; (G) R. sulcicollis; (H) Melanolestes picipes; and (I) Sirthenea stria carinata. Solid lines separate genera, dashed lines separate species.

FIGURE 7 in Three new species of Rasahus, with clarifications on the identities of three other Neotropical corsairs (Heteroptera: Reduviidae: Peiratinae)

FIGURE 7. Holotype of Reduvius scutellaris housed in ZMUC: (A) ventral habitus; (B) ventral habitus of head and pronotum; (C) dorsal habitus; (D) dorsal habitus of head and pronotum; (E) labels. Scale bar = 2 mm. Photographed by Mikkel Post (ZMUC); used with permission.

FIGURE 9 in Three new species of Rasahus, with clarifications on the identities of three other Neotropical corsairs (Heteroptera: Reduviidae: Peiratinae)

FIGURE 9. Belizean specimens of Rasahus myrmecinus stat. rev. et comb. nov.: (A–C) adult male: (A) dorsal habitus; (B) caudal view of terminalia; (C) lateral habitus; (D–F) adult female: (D) dorsal habitus; (E) caudal view of terminalia; (F) lateral habitus.

FIGURE 10 in Three new species of Rasahus, with clarifications on the identities of three other Neotropical corsairs (Heteroptera: Reduviidae: Peiratinae)

FIGURE 10. Protibial fossula spongiosa, lateral view: (A) Belizean male of Rasahus myrmecinus stat. rev. et comb. nov.; and (B) R. abolitus sp. nov. (holotype).

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FIGURE 1 in Clarification of the type series of Amphibolurus barbatus microlepidotus Glauert, 1952 (= Pogona microlepidota) (Reptilia: Squamata: Agamidae)

FIGURE 1. Neelaps calonotus specimen associated with the erroneous registration number (WAM R592) presented by Glauert (1952), scale bar = 20 mm. Specimen associated with the other erroneous registration number, WAM R591 (Pseudonaja affinis), could not be located.

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FIGURE 2 in Clarification of the type series of Amphibolurus barbatus microlepidotus Glauert, 1952 (= Pogona microlepidota) (Reptilia: Squamata: Agamidae)

FIGURE 2. Correct Amphibolurus barbatus microlepidotus (= Pogona microlepidota) syntypes, WAM R951 (left) and WAM R952 (right). Scale bar = 20 mm.

Figure 8 in The Origin and Evolution of the Rattlesnake Rattle: Misdirection, Clarification, Theory, and Progress

Figure 8. Multi-modal aposematic threat display by an iconic rattlesnake species of the Southwest. An adult Crotalus atrox in a typical raised posture. In addition to postural signals, such displays incorporate sound (rattling and hissing), other visual signals (tongue arching, stark black and white tail banding), and overt intimidation (mock strikes). Together these signals comprise an integrated deterrent (warning) system. Photo by Martin J. Feldner.

Figure 7 in The Origin and Evolution of the Rattlesnake Rattle: Misdirection, Clarification, Theory, and Progress

Figure 7. Unbroken sequence of evolutionary stages in rattle development illustrating the caudal luring hypothesis (CLH) of the rattle's origin. We partitioned this evolutionary sequence into six conceptual stages to emphasize possible transitions of selective influences on the incipient rattle organ system. Mimicry dominated the incipient stages (stages 1–3), which first resulted in terminal scale enlargement, followed by constriction of the end scale. Mimetic selective forces (Box 1) increased the tail's resemblance to a cephalized, segmented invertebrate, which also brought about changes in the generative tissue (matrix) and its bony substratum at the apex of the tail. In our opinion, the major evolutionary transition occurred between stages 3 and 4, when a bi- or tri-lobed end-cap, which was formerly shed during molts, gained a clasping configuration and a position shifting developmental process by which a new proximal lobe was added anterior to the old proximal lobe from the previous ecdysis (see Meik and Schuett, this volume, Rattle Evo-Devo). This innovation would have opened the door for sound production. Subsequently, with the advent of specialized rapid tail movements and changes in behavior, the aposematic role of this organ system became the dominant selective influence (stage 5). Based on multiple lines of evidence, we suggest that early rattlesnakes had small, relatively quiet rattles which could be deployed for only short durations (e.g., Sistrurus miliarius). Once aposematic sound production was achieved, certain lineages evolved hyper-aposematic, multi-modal displays (stage 6) involving increased body size (formidability), large rattles and hissing (acoustic), bold defensive postures (behavioral), starkly banded tails (black and white), larger quantities of venom per bite, and perhaps in some cases increased toxicity (Figure 8). In reference to a purely aposematic hypothesis to account for the origin of the rattle, this model fills major theoretical gaps in selective regimes present and acting on the early proto-rattle and incipient rattle. Namely, it adds stages 2 and 3, which provide an explanation for early and important morphological changes that must have required evolutionary tinkering. The transition (gradient) in selection (mimetic to aposematic) advantage appears to be complete in derived rattlesnakes (e.g., C. atrox), but is incomplete in those species that still employ caudal luring (Figures 2–4), most of which are small as adults and have limited and less dramatic aposematic repertoires (see Eberhard, 2011).

Figure 6 in The Origin and Evolution of the Rattlesnake Rattle: Misdirection, Clarification, Theory, and Progress

Figure 6. Species of vertebrates that show prey-luring. a) Painted Frogfish (Antennarius pictus). b) Alligator Snapping Turtle (Macroclemmys sp.). c) Tasselled Wobbegong (Eucrossorhinus dasypogon). d) Cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus).

Figure 5 in The Origin and Evolution of the Rattlesnake Rattle: Misdirection, Clarification, Theory, and Progress

Figure 5. Differences between values for respiratory activity of midbody and tail muscle reported by Moon (2001). VO 2 = rate of oxygen consumption, sdh = succinic dehydrogenase, and co = cytochrome oxidase (change in optical density). Moon (2001) reported raw values that were perhaps not intuitive to reviewers, and asserted that Agkistrodon contortrix displayed muscle oxidative capacities intermediate between tail-rattling colubrids (Coluber constrictor) and rattlesnakes (Sistrurus miliarius and Crotalus horridus). Plotting differences between mid-body and tail muscle measurements leads to a revised conclusion. Error bars = SD calculated as the square root of the sum of variances. The crosshatched bar is reported here as a positive number, but would have been negative as reported by Moon (a possible transposition).

Figure 4 in The Origin and Evolution of the Rattlesnake Rattle: Misdirection, Clarification, Theory, and Progress

Figure 4. Species of rattlesnakes that hunt by caudal luring. a) Newborn Ridgenose Rattlesnakes (Crotalus willardi) with their putative mother, from Arizona. Note that the tail is off-white. See paper by Schuett et al. (1984). Photo by Brendan O'Connor. b) A newborn Rock Rattlesnake (Crotalus lepidus), from Arizona. Note the bright yellow tail. See paper by Kauffeld (1943). Photo by Martin J. Feldner.

Figure 3 in The Origin and Evolution of the Rattlesnake Rattle: Misdirection, Clarification, Theory, and Progress

Figure 3. The yellow tail of a young Pigmy Rattlesnake (Sistrurus miliarius) from Florida. Note the scrapes and missing scales on the ventral side. The photographer told us, "Based on the damaged scales, looks like the tail got some use as a caudal lure." See paper by Sisk and Jackson (1997). Rabatsky (2008) provides a review. Photo by Ed Cassano.

Figure 1 in The Origin and Evolution of the Rattlesnake Rattle: Misdirection, Clarification, Theory, and Progress

Figure 1. The Spider-tailed Viper (Pseudocerastes urarachnoides) from western Iran (in situ). Note the elaborate tail (caudal lure) from which it derives its names (Bostanchi et al., 2006; Fathinia et al., 2015). To watch this species lure birds, go to https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=VvNrOVf17Es. Photo by Frank Deschandol.