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6,383 results for “isolates”
Data from: Male mate choice via cuticular hydrocarbon pheromones drives reproductive isolation between Drosophila species
Mate discrimination is a key mechanism restricting gene flow between species. While studied extensively with respect to female mate choice, mechanisms of male mate choice between species are far less studied. Thus, we have little knowledge of the relative frequency, importance, or overall contribution of male mate discrimination to reproductive isolation. In the present study, we estimated the relative contributions of male and female choice to reproductive isolation between Drosophila simulans and D. sechellia, and show that male mate discrimination accounts for the majority of the current isolation between these species. We further demonstrate that males discriminate based on female cuticular hydrocarbon pheromones, and collect evidence supporting the hypothesis that male mate discrimination may alleviate the costs associated with heterospecific courtship and mating. Our findings highlight the potentially significant contribution of male mate choice to the formation of reproductive isolating barriers, and thus the speciation process.
Data from: Does reproductive isolation reflect the segregation of color forms in Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames complex (Orchidaceae) in the Chinese Himalayas?
Isolation between species, or taxa sharing a common lineage, depends primarily on the relative strengths of various reproductive barriers. Previous studies on reproductive isolation between orchids emphasized mechanical and ethological barriers in flowers of species showing food and/or sexual mimicry. In this study, we investigated and quantified a series of pre- and post-pollination barriers between pink and white forms of Spiranthes sinensis sl, a nectar-secreting complex. We generated ML trees based on trnS-G and matK to explore phylogenetic relationships in this species complex. Spiranthes sinensis sl segregated from some other congeners but the white form constituted a distinct clade in relation to the pink form. The white form secreted 2-Phenylethanol as its single scent compound and was pollinated almost exclusively by native, large-bodied Apis cerana and Bombus species (Apidae). Apis cerana showed a high floral constancy to this form. The scentless, pink form was pollinated primarily by smaller bees in the genera Ceratina (Apidae), and members of the family Halictidae, with infrequent visits by A. cerana and Bombus species. Fruit set and the production of large embryos following inter-form pollination treatments were significantly lower compared to intra-form pollination results for the white form. Our results suggested that pollinator isolation, based on color and scent cues, may result in greater floral constancy in white populations when both forms are sympatric as two different, guilds of pollinators forage selectively preventing or reducing prospective gene flow. Post-pollination barriers appear weaker than pre-pollination barriers but they also play a role in inter-form isolation, especially in the white form. Our findings suggest that floral color forms in S. sinensis do not represent an unbalanced polymorphism. Interpretations of the evolutionary status of these forms are discussed.
Data from: Soil sampling and isolation of extracellular DNA from large amount of starting material suitable for metabarcoding studies
DNA metabarcoding corresponds to the DNA-based identification of multiple species from a single complex and degraded environmental sample. We developed new sampling and extraction protocols suitable for DNA metabarcoding analyses, targeting soil extracellular DNA. The proposed sampling protocol has been designed to reduce as much as possible the influence of the local heterogeneity by processing large amount of soil, resulting from the mixing of many different cores. The DNA extraction is based on the use of saturated phosphate buffer. The sampling and extraction protocols were validated first by analyzing plant DNA from a set of 12 plots corresponding to four plant communities in alpine meadows, and second by conducting pilot experiments on fungi and earthworms. The results of the validation experiments clearly demonstrated that sound biological information can be retrieved when following these sampling and extraction procedures. Such a protocol can be implemented at any time of the year without any preliminary knowledge of specific types of organisms during the sampling. It offers the opportunity to analyze all groups of organisms using a single sampling/extraction procedure and opens the possibility to fully standardize biodiversity surveys.
Data from: Isolation by time and habitat and coexistence of distinct host races of the common cuckoo
Isolation by time occurs when different populations of a single species reproduce at different times and thereby reduce the probability of interbreeding, potentially causing divergent adaptation to timing of reproduction, eventually resulting in ecological species separated by timing of reproduction. We analyzed extensive data on timing of reproduction by different host races of the common cuckoo Cuculus canorus that is an obligate brood parasite laying eggs in the nests of many different species of passerine birds. Because different hosts breed at different times, specific host races of cuckoos have adapted to specific hosts by laying eggs when nests of these hosts are available, and such divergence may be further exaggerated by differences in timing of breeding among host races with similar habitat requirements. Host species accounted for a quarter of the variance in timing of breeding by the cuckoo. Common cuckoos reproduced at a similar, but narrower subset of dates as did possible hosts, showing that only a fraction of hosts with specific breeding dates were parasitized. Common cuckoo eggs laid in the 'right' kind of nests, phenotypically matching the eggs of the host, were laid later during the season than cuckoo eggs laid in the 'wrong' kind of nests where the eggs did not mimic those of the host. Pairs of sympatric cuckoo host races differed more in timing of breeding than pairs of allopatric host races, and pairs of cuckoo host races with similar breeding habitat differed more in breeding date than pairs of cuckoo host races with dissimilar habitat, as expected from reproductive character displacement. These findings are consistent with cuckoo host races being isolated by timing of breeding and habitat.
Data from: No evidence for extrinsic post-zygotic isolation in a wild Saccharomyces yeast system
Although microorganisms account for the largest fraction of Earth's biodiversity, we know little about how their reproductive barriers evolve. Sexual microorganisms such as Saccharomyces yeasts rapidly develop strong intrinsic post-zygotic isolation, but the role of extrinsic isolation in the early speciation process remains to be investigated. We measured the growth of F1 hybrids between two incipient species of Saccharomyces paradoxus to assess the presence of extrinsic post-zygotic isolation across 32 environments. More than 80% of hybrids showed either partial dominance of the best parent or over-dominance for growth, revealing no fitness defects in F1 hybrids. Extrinsic reproductive isolation therefore likely plays little role in limiting gene flow between incipient yeast species and is not a requirement for speciation.
Data from: Development of genomic resources for the tick Ixodes ricinus: isolation and characterization of single nucleotide polymorphisms
Assessing the genetic variability of the tick Ixodes ricinus - an important vector of pathogens in Europe - is an essential step for setting-up anti-tick control methods. Here, we report the first identification of a set of SNPs isolated from the genome of I. ricinus, carried out by applying a genomic complexity reduction step, followed by pyrosequencing and the use new bioinformatics tools. Almost 1.4 million reads (average length : 528 nt) were generated with a full Roche 454 GS FLX run on two Reduced Representation Libraries of I. ricinus. 321,088 putative SNPs were isolated using the newly developed bioinformatics tool READ2SNPS, which identifies SNPs without requiring a reference genome. Stringent selection criteria were applied in a bioinformatics pipeline to select 1,768 SNPs for the development of specific primers. Among 384 randomly selected SNPs, tested by Fluidigm genotyping technology on 464 individual ticks, 368 SNPs loci (96%) exhibited the presence of the two expected alleles. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium tests conducted on 6 natural populations of ticks showed that from 26 to 46 of the 384 loci exhibited significant heterozygote deficiencies. The generated SNP resource described here will be useful for a variety of applications such as the assessment of the genetic structure of I. ricinus populations.
Data from: Isolation-by-distance in landscapes: considerations for landscape genetics
In landscape genetics, isolation-by-distance (IBD) is regarded as a baseline pattern that is obtained without additional effects of landscape elements on gene flow. However, the configuration of suitable habitat patches determines deme topology, which in turn should affect rates of gene flow. IBD patterns can be characterized either by monotonically increasing pairwise genetic differentiation (for example, FST) with increasing interdeme geographic distance (case-I pattern) or by monotonically increasing pairwise genetic differentiation up to a certain geographical distance beyond which no correlation is detectable anymore (case-IV pattern). We investigated if landscape configuration influenced the rate at which a case-IV pattern changed to a case-I pattern. We also determined at what interdeme distance the highest correlation was measured between genetic differentiation and geographic distance and whether this distance corresponded to the maximum migration distance. We set up a population genetic simulation study and assessed the development of IBD patterns for several habitat configurations and maximum migration distances. We show that the rate and likelihood of the transition of case-IV to case-I FST–distance relationships was strongly influenced by habitat configuration and maximum migration distance. We also found that the maximum correlation between genetic differentiation and geographic distance was not related to the maximum migration distance and was measured across all deme pairs in a case-I pattern and, for a case-IV pattern, at the distance where the FST–distance curve flattens out. We argue that in landscape genetics, separate analyses should be performed to either assess IBD or the landscape effects on gene flow.
Data from: Isolation and characterization of 145 polymorphic microsatellite loci for the common frog (Rana temporaria)
We describe primers and polymerase chain reaction conditions to amplify 145 di-, tri- and tetranucleotide microsatellite loci from the common frog (Rana temporaria), a species commonly used as a model in ecological and evolutionary research. Primers were tested on 46 individuals from two Fennoscandian populations and yielded an average of six to nine alleles per locus (range = 1–30) depending on the population. Average observed heterozygosities in the two populations were 0.16 (range = 0–0.91) and 0.36 (range = 0–1).
Data from: Distinguishing migration from isolation using genes with intragenic recombination: detecting introgression in the Drosophila simulans species complex
Background: Determining the presence or absence of gene flow between populations is the target of some statistical methods in population genetics. Until recently, these methods either avoided the use of recombining genes, or treated recombination as a nuisance parameter. However, genes with recombination contribute additional information for the detection of gene flow (i.e. through linkage disequilibrium). Methods: We present three summary statistics based on the spatial arrangement of fixed differences, and shared and exclusive polymorphisms that are sensitive to the presence and direction of gene flow. Power and false positive rate for tests based on these statistics are studied by simulation. Results: The application of these tests to populations from the Drosophila simulans species complex yielded results consistent with migration between D. simulans and its two endemic sister species D. mauritiana and D. sechellia, and between populations D. mauritiana on the islands of the Mauritius and Rodrigues. Conclusions: We demonstrate the sensitivity of the developed statistics to the presence and direction of gene flow, and characterize their power as a function of differentiation level and recombination rate. The properties of these statistics make them especially suitable for analyzing high-throughput sequencing data or for their integration within the approximate Bayesian computation framework.
Data from: Enhanced computational methods for quantifying the effect of geographic and environmental isolation on genetic differentiation
1. In a recent paper, Bradburd et al. (Evolution, 67, 2013, 3258) proposed a model to quantify the relative effect of geographic and environmental distance on genetic differentiation. Here, we enhance this method in several ways. 2. We modify the covariance model so as to fit better with mainstream geostatistical models and avoid mathematically ill-behaved covariance functions. We extend the model – initially implemented only for co-dominant bi-allelic markers such as single nucleotide polymorphisms – to encompass highly polymorphic markers such as microsatellites. We implement and test a model selection procedure that allows users to assess which model (e.g. with or without an environment effect) is most suited. We code all our MCMC algorithms in a mix of compiled languages which allows us to decrease computing time by at least one order of magnitude. We propose an approximate inference and model selection method allowing us to deal with genomic data sets (several hundred thousands loci). 3. We also illustrate the potential of the method by re-analysing three data sets, namely harbour porpoises in Europe, coyotes in California and herrings in the Baltic Sea. 4. The computer program developed here is freely available as an r package called sunder. It takes as input georeferenced allele counts at the individual or population level for co-dominant markers. Program homepage: http://www2.imm.dtu.dk/~gigu/Sunder/.
Data from: On the Coyne and Orr-igin of species: effects of intrinsic postzygotic isolation, ecological differentiation, X-chromosome size, and sympatry on Drosophila speciation
Coyne and Orr found that mating discrimination (premating isolation) evolves much faster between sympatric than allopatric Drosophila species pairs. Their meta-analyses established that this pattern, expected under reinforcement, is common and that Haldane's rule is ubiquitous in Drosophila species divergence. We examine three possible contributors to the reinforcement pattern: intrinsic postzygotic isolation, dichotomized as to whether hybrid males show complete inviability/sterility; host-plant divergence, as a surrogate for extrinsic postzygotic isolation; and X chromosome size, whether roughly 20% or 40% of the genome is X-linked. We focus on "young" species pairs with overlapping ranges, contrasted with allopatric pairs. Using alternative criteria for "sympatry" and tests that compare either level of prezygotic isolation in sympatry or frequency of sympatry, we find no statistically significant effects associated with X chromosome size or our coarse quantifications of intrinsic postzygotic isolation or ecological differentiation. Although sympatric speciation seems very rare in animals, the pervasiveness of the reinforcement pattern and the commonness of range overlap for close relatives indicate that speciation in Drosophila is often not purely allopatric. It remains to determine whether increased premating isolation with sympatry results from secondary contact versus parapatric speciation and what drives this pattern.
Data from: Genome reorganization in F1 hybrids uncovers the role of retrotransposons in reproductive isolation
Interspecific hybridization leads to new interactions among divergent genomes, revealing the nature of genetic incompatibilities having accumulated during and after the origin of species. Conflicts associated with misregulation of transposable elements (TEs) in hybrids expectedly result in their activation and genome-wide changes that may be key to species boundaries. Repetitive genomes of wild wheats have diverged under differential dynamics of specific long terminal repeat retrotransposons (LTR-RTs), offering unparalleled opportunities to address the underpinnings of plant genome reorganization by selfish sequences. Using reciprocal F1 hybrids between three Aegilops species, restructuring and epigenetic repatterning was assessed at random and LTR-RT sequences with amplified fragment length polymorphism and sequence-specific amplified polymorphisms as well as their methylation-sensitive counterparts, respectively. Asymmetrical reorganization of LTR-RT families predicted to cause conflicting interactions matched differential survival of F1 hybrids. Consistent with the genome shock model, increasing divergence of merged LTR-RTs yielded higher levels of changes in corresponding genome fractions and lead to repeated reorganization of LTR-RT sequences in F1 hybrids. Such non-random reorganization of hybrid genomes is coherent with the necessary repression of incompatible TE loci in support of hybrid viability and indicates that TE-driven genomic conflicts may represent an overlooked factor supporting reproductive isolation.
Data from: The role of prezygotic isolation mechanisms in the divergence of two parasite species
Background: The formation of reproductive barriers in diverging lineages is a prerequisite to complete speciation according to the biological species concept. In parasites with complex life cycles, speciation may be driven by adaptation to different intermediate hosts, yet diverging lineages can still share the same definitive host where reproduction takes place. In these cases, prezygotic isolation mechanisms should evolve very early and be particularly strong, preventing costly unfavourable matings. In this study, we investigated the importance of prezygotic barriers to reproduction in two cestode species that diverged 20–25mya and show an extraordinary degree of specificity to different intermediate hosts. Both species share the same definitive hosts and hybridize in the laboratory. Yet, natural hybrids have so far not been detected. Methods: We used a combination of different experiments to investigate the role of prezygotic barriers to reproduction in the speciation of these parasites. First, we investigated whether hybridization is possible under natural conditions by exposing lab-reared herring gulls (Larus argentatus, the definitive hosts) to both parasites of either sympatric or allopatric combinations. In a second experiment, we tested whether the parasites prefer conspecifics over parasites from a different species in dichotomous mate choice trials. Results: Our results show that the two species hybridize under natural conditions with parasites originating either from sympatric or allopatric populations producing hybrid offspring. Surprisingly, the mate choice experiment indicated that both parasite species prefer mates of the different species to conspecifics. Conclusions: Neither fundamental constraints against hybridization in a natural host nor assortative mate choice sufficiently explain the persistent segregation of the two tapeworm species in nature. Hence, postzygotic ecological selection against hybrids is presumably the more important driving force limiting gene flow between the two parasite sister species.
Data from: Ecogeographic isolation and speciation in the genus Mimulus
Despite a long history of examining the geographic context of speciation, differences in geographic range have rarely been considered a legitimate isolating mechanism. This likely results from the complex relationship between historical and ecological processes in determining the spatial distribution of species. Ecogeographic isolation is the proportion of geographic isolation that results from genetically based ecological differences between taxa and should therefore be measured as an isolating mechanism under the biological species concept. In this study, species distribution modeling was used to evaluate the potential ranges of 12 recently diverged pairs of species in the genus Mimulus. Variation in the distribution models showed that these species differ significantly in the niches they occupy. These differences result in substantial ecogeographic isolation, with an average strength of 0.67, revealing that, on average, Mimulus species exhibit only 33% overlap in the extent of suitable habitat with their closest relatives. Because prezygotic barriers act early in the life cycle of organisms, this strong barrier has the potential to contribute greatly to the total isolation experienced between diverging species. Therefore, ecogeographic isolation appears to play an important role in Mimulus, and estimating the strength of this barrier is essential to our general understanding of speciation.
Data from: Asymmetrical sexual isolation but no postmating isolation between the closely related species Drosophila suboccidentalis and Drosophila occidentalis
Background: During the speciation process several types of isolating barriers can arise that limit gene flow between diverging populations. Studying recently isolated species can inform our understanding of how and when these barriers arise, and which barriers may be most important to limiting gene flow. Here we focus on Drosophila suboccidentalis and D. occidentalis, which are closely related mushroom-feeding species that inhabit western North America and are not known to overlap in geographic range. We investigate patterns of reproductive isolation between these species, including premating, postmating prezygotic, and postzygotic barriers to gene flow. Results: Using flies that originate from a single population of each species, we find that the strength of premating sexual isolation between these species is asymmetric: while D. occidentalis females mate with D. suboccidentalis males at a reduced but moderate rate, D. suboccidentalis females discriminate strongly against mating with D. occidentalis males. Female hybrids will mate at high rates with males of either species, indicating that this discrimination has a recessive genetic basis. Hybrid males are accepted by females of both species. We do not find evidence for postmating prezygotic or postzygotic isolating barriers, as females use the sperm of heterospecific males and both male and female hybrids are fully fertile. Conclusions: Premating isolation is substantial but incomplete, and appears to be the primary form of reproductive isolation between these species. If these species do hybridize, the lack of postzygotic barriers may allow for gene flow between them. Given that these species are recently diverged and are not known to be sympatric, the level of premating isolation is relatively strong given the lack of intrinsic postzygotic isolation. Further work is necessary to characterize the geographic and genetic variation in reproductive isolating barriers, as well as to determine the factors that drive reproductive isolation and the consequences that isolating barriers as well as geographic isolation have had on patterns of gene flow between these species.
Data from: Genetic variation for outcrossing among Caenorhabditis elegans isolates
The evolution of breeding systems results from the existence of genetic variation and selective forces favoring different outcrossing rates. In this study we determine the extent of genetic variation for characters directly related to outcrossing, such as male frequency, male mating ability, and male reproductive success, in several wild isolates of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. This species is characterized by an androdioecious breeding system in which males occur with hermaphrodites that can either self-fertilize or outcross with males. We find genetic variation for all characters measured, but also find that environmental variation is a large fraction of the total phenotypic variance. We further determine the existence of substantial genetic variation for population competitive performance in several laboratory environments. However, these measures are uncorrelated with outcrossing characters. The data presented here contribute to an understanding of male maintenance in natural populations through their role in outcrossing.
Data from: Does divergent selection predict the evolution of mate preference and reproductive isolation in the tropical butterfly genus Melinaea (Nymphalidae: Ithomiini)?
Many studies have shown that speciation can be facilitated when a trait under divergent selection also causes assortative mating. In Müllerian mimetic butterflies, a change in wing colour pattern can cause reproductive isolation. However, colour pattern divergence does not always lead to reproductive isolation. Understanding how divergent selection affects speciation requires identifying the mechanisms that promote mate preference and/or choosiness. This study addresses whether shifts in wing colour pattern drives mate preference and reproductive isolation in the tropical butterfly genus Melinaea (Nymphalidae: Ithomiini), and focuses on five taxa that form a speciation continuum, from subspecies to fully recognized species. Using genetic markers, wing colour pattern quantification, male pheromone characterization and behavioural assays of mating preference, we characterize the extent of genetic and phenotypic differentiation between taxa and compare it to the level of reproductive isolation. We show strong premating isolation between the closely related species M. satevis and M. marsaeus, in addition to genetic and phenotypic (colour pattern and pheromones) differentiation. By contrast, M. menophilus and M. marsaeus consist of pairs of subspecies that differ for colour pattern but that cannot be differentiated genetically. Pheromonal differentiation of subspecies was significant only for M. marsaeus, although most individuals were indistinguishable. Melinaea menophilus and M. marsaeus also differ in the strength of assortative mating, suggesting that mate preference has evolved only in M. marsaeus, consistent with selection against maladaptive offspring, as subspecific "hybrids" of M. marsaeus have intermediate, non‐mimetic colour patterns, unlike those of M. menophilus which display either parental phenotypes. We conclude that a shift in colour pattern per se is not sufficient for reproductive isolation, but rather, the evolution of assortative mating may be caused by selection against maladaptive intermediate phenotypes. This study suggests that mate preference and assortative mating evolve when adaptive, and that even in the early stages of divergence, reproductive isolation can be nearly complete due to mating preferences.
Data from: Cheaper isn't always worse: more protective isolates of a defensive symbiont are less costly to the aphid host
Defences against parasites are typically associated with costs to the host that contribute to the maintenance of variation in resistance. This also applies to the defence provided by the facultative bacterial endosymbiont Hamiltonella defensa, which protects its aphid hosts against parasitoid wasps while imposing life-history costs. To investigate the cost–benefit relationship within protected hosts, we introduced multiple isolates of H. defensa to the same genetic backgrounds of black bean aphids, Aphis fabae, and we quantified the protection against their parasitoid Lysiphlebus fabarum as well as the costs to the host (reduced lifespan and reproduction) in the absence of parasitoids. Surprisingly, we observed the opposite of a trade-off. Strongly protective isolates of H. defensa reduced lifespan and lifetime reproduction of unparasitized aphids to a lesser extent than weakly protective isolates. This finding has important implications for the evolution of defensive symbiosis and highlights the need for a better understanding of how strain variation in protective symbionts is maintained.
Data from: Cascading reproductive isolation: plant phenology drives temporal isolation among populations of a host-specific herbivore
All organisms exist within a complex network of interacting species, thus evolutionary change may have reciprocal effects on multiple taxa. Here, we demonstrate "cascading reproductive isolation," whereby ecological differences that reduce gene flow between populations at one trophic level affect reproductive isolation (RI) among interacting species at the next trophic level. Using a combination of field, laboratory and common-garden studies and long-term herbaria records, we estimate and evaluate the relative contribution of temporal RI to overall prezygotic RI between populations of Belonocnema treatae, a specialist gall-forming wasp adapted to sister species of live oak (Quercus virginiana and Q. geminata). We link strong temporal RI between host-associated insect populations to differences between host plant budbreak phenology. Budbreak initiates flowering and the production of new leaves, which are an ephemeral resource critical to insect reproduction. As flowering time is implicated in RI between plant species, budbreak acts as a "multitrophic multi-effect trait," whereby differences in budbreak phenology contribute to RI in plants and insects. These sister oak species share a diverse community of host-specific gall-formers and insect natural enemies similarly dependent on ephemeral plant tissues. Thus, our results set the stage for testing for parallelism in a role of plant phenology in driving temporal cascading RI across multiple species and trophic levels.
Data from: The accumulation of reproductive isolation in early stages of divergence supports a role for sexual selection
Models of speciation by sexual selection propose that male-female coevolution leads to the rapid evolution of behavioral reproductive isolation. Here, we compare the strength of behavioral isolation to ecological isolation, gametic incompatibility, and hybrid inviability in a group of dichromatic stream fishes. In addition, we examine whether any of these individual barriers, or a combined measure of total isolation, is predicted by body shape differences, male color differences, environmental differences, or genetic distance. Behavioral isolation reaches the highest values of any barrier and is significantly greater than ecological isolation. No individual reproductive barrier is associated with any of the predictor variables. However, marginally significant relationships between male color and body shape differences with ecological and behavioral isolation are discussed. Differences in male color and body shape predict total reproductive isolation between species; hierarchical partitioning of these two variables' effects suggests a stronger role for male color differences. Together, these results suggest an important role for divergent sexual selection in darter speciation but raise new questions about the mechanisms of sexual selection at play and the role of male nuptial ornaments.
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