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Text-fig. 5. Frequency diagram of metric variation (m1 lenght = m1L) in samples of Apodemus spp. representing particular Pleistocene biozones (MN 17 – Q 3), compared to variation span in the Recent samples of A. uralensis, A. sylvaticus and A. flavicollis (a heading strip). in Genus Apodemus In The Pleistocene Of Central Europe: When Did The Extant Taxa Appear?

Text-fig. 5. Frequency diagram of metric variation (m1 lenght = m1L) in samples of Apodemus spp. representing particular Pleistocene biozones (MN 17 – Q 3), compared to variation span in the Recent samples of A. uralensis, A. sylvaticus and A. flavicollis (a heading strip).

Figure 7 in Implications of the mastoid anatomy of larger extant felids for the evolution and predatory behaviour of sabretoothed cats (Mammalia, Carnivora, Felidae)

Figure 7. Drawing of the skull and anterior cervicals of Panthera tigris (top) and Homotherium latidens (bottom) with fibres of selected muscles. Muscle numbering as in Figs 1–5. A black circle in the condylar area represents the position of the rotation centre of the atlanto-occipital articulation. Notice how, in Homotherium, most fibres of the obliquus capitis cranialis extend well below that centre of rotation, and would therefore have a stronger head-flexing action. Notice also how the greater distance between the posterior tip of the atlas wings and the tip of the mastoid process in Homotherium makes for longer inferior fibres of the obliquus capitis cranialis muscle.

Figure 6 in Implications of the mastoid anatomy of larger extant felids for the evolution and predatory behaviour of sabretoothed cats (Mammalia, Carnivora, Felidae)

Figure 6. Photographs of the mastoid region of skull in female lion, Panthera leo (top) and scimitar-toothed cat, Homotherium latidens (bottom) from Incarcal, Spain (IN-I 929). Note that the back of the skull is broken in the fossil. Muscle insertion areas are marked; muscle numbering as in Figs 1–5. M, mastoid process; P, paroccipital process.

Figure 5 in Implications of the mastoid anatomy of larger extant felids for the evolution and predatory behaviour of sabretoothed cats (Mammalia, Carnivora, Felidae)

Figure 5. (A) Photograph and schematic representation of deep muscles of the neck in a lioness. The posterior portion of the temporalis muscle has been removed to make visible the nuchal region of skull and neck muscles attaching to it. 7, deep extensors of the neck, including rectus capitis dorsalis major and minor; Am, auditory meatus; Mp, mastoid process; Nc, nuchal crest. (B) Photograph and schematic representation of deep muscles of the neck of a male puma in ventral view. 9, m. rectus capitis lateralis.

Figure 4 in Implications of the mastoid anatomy of larger extant felids for the evolution and predatory behaviour of sabretoothed cats (Mammalia, Carnivora, Felidae)

Figure 4. (A) Photograph and schematic representation of deep muscles of the neck in male tiger. 5, m. obliquus capitis caudalis; 6, m. obliquus capitis cranialis; 8, m. digastricus; At, lateral border of the atlas wings; Ax, dorsal border of axis. (B) Photograph and schematic representation of deep muscles in a male puma. f, additional superficial fibres of m. obliquus capitis cranialis, dorsal to the atlas wing.

Figure 2 in Implications of the mastoid anatomy of larger extant felids for the evolution and predatory behaviour of sabretoothed cats (Mammalia, Carnivora, Felidae)

Figure 2. Photograph and schematic representation of superficial layer of head and neck muscles of male puma. 1, m. brachiocephalicus.

Figure 1 in Implications of the mastoid anatomy of larger extant felids for the evolution and predatory behaviour of sabretoothed cats (Mammalia, Carnivora, Felidae)

Figure 1. Schematic drawing of the skull and cervical vertebrae of the scimitar-toothed cat Homotherium latidens showing the hypothetical motions of the stabbing bite (top) and the canine shear bite (bottom). In the first case the main rotation is around a point behind the thoraco-cervical joint (white circle) and the posterior cervicals, whereas in the second case, the main rotation occurs at the atlantooccipital joint (white circle). In the stabbing model (top), the pull of the brachiocephalic muscles (single headed arrow) and of the scalenes (two headed arrow) provides the main force for the strike. In the canine shear-bite model (bottom), the pull of the atlanto-mastoid muscles (short two-headed arrow) is the most important force for the penetration of the upper canines.

Figure 8. Comparison between Trinomys lower teeth, which presents a in Relationships among extant and fossil echimyids (Rodentia: Hystricognathi)

Figure 8. Comparison between Trinomys lower teeth, which presents a deep sulcus between hypolophid and hypoconid (indicated by an arrow in the dP4), resulting in a hypoflexid continuous to the metaflexid ('deep main fold' of Moojen, 1948); and Proechimys lower teeth, which do not present a sulcus or have it quite shallow (feature considered in characters 8 and 20). A, Trinomys dimidiatus (MN 4016; left series); B, Proechimys gularis (AMNH 67323, left series). The arrows, in the dP4 of both specimens, show the area between the hypolophid and hypoconid. Note that, although the Trinomys specimen is older (has all teeth already worn), the sulcus is present in all teeth (state 1); by contrast, in Proechimys, only the unworn M3 presents the sulcus, which is already absent in dP4–M2 (state 0).

Figure 15 in Relationships among extant and fossil echimyids (Rodentia: Hystricognathi)

Figure 15. Differences in the anterior projection of the premaxillary bone (character 41). A, Carterodon sulcidens (MN 54368) showing a well-developed premaxillary (state 1); B, Proechimys roberti (MN 21942): the premaxillary bone presents a well-marked antero-mesial expansion (arrow) in the region of nasal openings (state 2). Abbreviations: n, nasal; p, premaxillary.

Figure 19 in Relationships among extant and fossil echimyids (Rodentia: Hystricognathi)

Figure 19. Strict consensus tree of the 4600 most parsimonious trees (84 steps; CI: 0.58; RI: 0.77) resultant from Analysis I (31 extant terminal taxa ¥ 43 characters). The clade uniting Dactylomys and Olallamys presents a decay index = 2; all other clades have a decay index = 1. See text for discussion and contents of groups of species.

Figure 11 in Relationships among extant and fossil echimyids (Rodentia: Hystricognathi)

Figure 11. Differences in protoloph development (character 28). A, Mesomys (MN 4864) right upper series, showing teeth with fully developed protolophs (state 0); B, Clyomys (MN 43073) left upper series, in which the teeth have the protolophs (arrow) restricted to the labial margin (fused to the labial end of the anteroloph in M1–M2) (state 1).

Figure 4 in Relationships among extant and fossil echimyids (Rodentia: Hystricognathi)

Figure 4. Occlusal view of Hoplomys teeth (AMNH 34218) showing the nomenclature for crown structures utilized herein. The nomenclature follows Patterson & Wood (1982). A, upper dP4. Abbreviations: C, central portion of neoloph; H, hypocone region; l, labial portion of neoloph; m, mure; P, protocone region. B, lower M1. Abbreviations: C, central portion of neolophid; e, ectolophid; H, hypoconid region; l, lingual portion of neolophid; P, protoconid region. See text for discussion.

Figure 2 in Relationships among extant and fossil echimyids (Rodentia: Hystricognathi)

Figure 2. Phylogeny of the early Echimyidae proposed by Patterson & Wood (1982; redrawn and modified from fig. 6). The direct ancestor-descendant relationships indicated in the scheme of Patterson & Wood are here depicted as polytomies.

Figure 7 in Relationships among extant and fossil echimyids (Rodentia: Hystricognathi)

Figure 7. Differences in depth of the marginal (lingual and labial) openings of flexids in lower teeth (characters 6– 12, and 18–24). Comparison between: A, Proechimys arescens (MN 34148; right series reversed to the left side); and B, Phyllomys sp. (MN 11256; left series); both with M2 nonerupted. Proechimys has flexids closed marginally, or with very shallow openings (state 0); by contrast, Phyllomys has flexids with deep marginal openings (state 1).

Figure 1 in Relationships among extant and fossil echimyids (Rodentia: Hystricognathi)

Figure 1. Tentative phylogeny of the Oligocene and Early Miocene Echimyidae proposed by Wood & Patterson (1959; redrawn and modified from fig. 3). The direct ancestor-descendant relationships indicated in the scheme of Wood & Patterson are here depicted as polytomies.

Figure 12 in Relationships among extant and fossil echimyids (Rodentia: Hystricognathi)

Figure 12. Differences in depth of the marginal (lingual and labial) openings of flexi in upper teeth (characters 29– 34). Comparison between: A, Proechimys arescens (MN 34141; right series reversed to the left side with M 2 still unworn); and B, Phyllomys sp. (MN 11256; left series with M2 non-erupted). As for the lower teeth, Proechimys has flexi closed marginally, or with shallow openings (state 0); by contrast, Phyllomys has flexi with deep marginal openings (state 1).

Figure 17 in Relationships among extant and fossil echimyids (Rodentia: Hystricognathi)

Figure 17. Differences in the contact between the ectotympanic and the squamosal (character 48). A, Makalata grandis (MN 11923) showing the contact along the entire dorsal margin of the ectotympanic (arrow) (state 0); B, Carterodon sulcidens (MN 54368) showing a partial contact between the bones, restricted to the posterior portion of the dorsal margin of the ectotympanic, thus forming a cleft between the ectotympanic and the squamosal (state 1). Abbreviations: ect, ectotympanic; s, squamosal.

Figure 18 in Relationships among extant and fossil echimyids (Rodentia: Hystricognathi)

Figure 18. Differences in the development of the sphenopalatine vacuities (character 50). A, Makalata grandis (MN 11923), in which these openings in the lateral wall of the mesopterygoid fossa are absent (state 0); B, Carterodon sulcidens (MN 54368) showing well-developed openings (state 1). Abbreviations: pl, palatine; pt, pterygoid.

Figure 20 in Relationships among extant and fossil echimyids (Rodentia: Hystricognathi)

Figure 20. Strict consensus tree of the 47 448 most parsimonious trees (107 steps; CI: 0.50; RI: 0.85) resultant from Analysis II (51 extant and fossil terminal taxa ¥ 48 characters). All clades present a decay index = 1. See text for discussion and contents of groups of species.

Figure 6 in Relationships among extant and fossil echimyids (Rodentia: Hystricognathi)

Figure 6. Lower right molar series of a young specimen (M2 in the alveolus) of Trinomys gratiosus bonafidei (MN 6796) showing the structure herein termed crest C (arrows). In the dP4 the crest shows two portions that we consider to be the central portion of the neolophid and the anteriorly orientated metalophid; in M1 the crest is continuous, but is assumed to be formed by the two above mentioned portions (see text for explanation).