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3,484 results for “Plastics”
The impact of metabolic plasticity on winter energy use models
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Data for Phenotypically plastic responses to freshwater salinization in larval amphibians: Induced tolerance and induced sensitivity
These data support a paper published by Relyea et al. in 2023 in the journal Environmental Pollution. In this manuscript titled 'Phenotypically plastic responses to freshwater salinization in larval amphibians: induced tolerance and induced sensitivity' the authors use a lab experiment to examine the effects of low levels of exposure to road salt pollution on amphibian responses to higher subsequent doses of the contaminant.
Fine-tuned phenotypes: Tadpole plasticity under 16 combinations of predators and competitors.
It is now well appreciated that most organisms can alter their phenotypes when faced with environmental variation. Decades of empirical investigations have documented hundreds of examples of phenotypic plasticity, yet most studies have focused on the presence or absence of a single environmental factor. As a result, we know little about how organisms respond to gradients of environmental factors (i.e., threshold responses vs. continuous responses), nor do we understand how organisms respond to combinations of environmental variables. I examined how larval wood frogs (Rana sylvatica) altered their behavior, morphology, and growth in response to combined gradients of predation and competition. Increased predation risk induced lower activity, deeper tails, and shorter bodies, which collectively caused slower growth. Increased competition caused slower growth which induced higher activity, shallower tails, and longer bodies. For both environmental gradients, the responses were frequently continuous rather than threshold responses. Moreover, predation and competition had interactive effects. Responses to predators were always larger under low competition than under high competition. Responses to competition were larger under low predation risk when predation and competition induced traits in the same direction, but larger under high predation risk when predation and competition induced traits in opposite directions. The results demonstrate that responses to phenotypically plastic traits can be fine-tuned to a wide variety of environmental combinations.
McMurdo Dry Valleys Moss nutrient plasticity and stoichiometry
  The McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica is one of the coldest and driest habitats on the planet. As vascular plants are absent in this region, moss is the main form of above-ground primary production with a potentially important contribution to biogeochemical cycling, yet little is known about their ecological role. To determine the relationship between moss and soil properties relevant to biogeochemistry, we sampled both from a variety of locations in the Dry Valleys. Moss presence was compared to soil properties, and we measured the plasticity of moss stoichiometry (C:N:P) across gradients in nutrient availability. Results demonstrate that many soil properties significantly differed with moss presence, particularly conductivity and pH, but there is no strong evidence that this is caused by the  moss presence and not the conditions inherent to the microsites where moss was found. There is great variability in moss stoichiometry, with some significant differences between sites, but generally variability within sites is larger than variation among sites. Results suggest that the main source of moss nutrients is from the soil, rather than water, but correlations with any one nutrient source are weak, suggesting a great deal of plasticity in moss stoichiometry and nutrient uptake.      Related Publication citation: Ball, B. and R. Virginia. 2014. The ecological role of moss in a polar desert: implications for aboveground-belowground and terrestrial-aquatic linkages. Polar Biology 37:651-664.   Â
Strawberry fields forever: that is, how many grams of plastics are used to grow a strawberry?
<p>In the agricultural sector, plastic is one of the most important tools for improving the managerial and economic performance of companies. The horticultural production under protected cultivation, in particular, makes abundant use of plastic polymers. Polymers that mostly turn into waste. This study aims to identify the main characteristics and factors affecting the decision of farmers operating in the strawberry production sector to recycle the plastic material used on-farm and quantify the plastic used in relation to the different types of materials used. Data come from one of the Italian most specialized areas in the strawberry sector, Marsala. Main findings show that behind a typical 250-gram basket of strawberries, the production process has generated more than 20 grams of plastic waste, consisting of different polymers. In comparison to what was thought it is exactly in the phase of acquisition of the factors of production, and in their transformation that it is possible to intervene to reduce the quantities of plastic polymers that are introduced into the soil. Our main result adds to previous knowledge that the informed producer (awareness) is the key to solving the problem. Improving environmental sustainability, and creating a circular economy.</p>
Modeling subduction megathrust earthquake cycle: Insights from a visco-elasto-plastic analog model
<p><strong>The dataset :</strong><br> The directory DATASET.zip provides data from subduction megathrust earthquake cycle analog experiments and results described in Caniven and Dominguez (2020). The data set contains all files for displacement fields (*.grd), time series of geodetic displacement (img_dcumul*.txt) and cumulative fault slip (profil*.gmt) and a spreadsheet file (*.numbers) used in plots of Figure 3 to Figure 10 in the paper. For each figure directory, we provide an example of script (SCRIPT_gmt*.txt) that can be used to display the data using the GMT software (Global Mapping Tools). The provided scripts have been developped to be used with GMT 5.4.4. The use of other versions may require some adjustments. See header of scripts for details.</p> <p><strong>The supporting movies :</strong><br> The Movies S1 and S2 show more complete records of experiments performed at two different tectonic loading rates. They corresponds to experiments analyzed in Figure 9 of the paper. Movies S1 is the "slow" experiment and Movies S2 is the "fast" one. The time-step is 5 seconds. All components of displacements field are plotted with associated profiles.</p> <p><strong>The analog model :</strong><br> The analog model reproduces subduction earthquake cycles using a multi-layered visco-elasto-plastic rheology. This includes the ductile mantle wedge with the overlying elastic part of the lithospheric plate and a subducting elastic oceanic crust. The frictional properties along the seismogenic zone favor stick-slip behavior from the trench to the brittle-ductile transition zone beyond which stable creep is dominant. Interseismic, coseismic and postseismic phases, including after-slip and viscoelastic relaxation are well reproduced. The model generates a wide range of slip events from creep to slow-slip events to earthquakes. Results reveals that the loading rate significantly controls fault slip stability by acting on the brittle-ductile coupling and the elastic strain energy stored during the interseismic stage. Slip properties depends also on the mean normal stress imposed along the fault zone. Finally, isolated and precursory slow-slip events are observed before the dynamic failure. The fault geometrical complexity is favored to explain the richness of the observed slip behavior.</p>
Data from: Snow-mediated plasticity does not prevent camouflage mismatch
<p>Global reduction in snow cover duration is one of the most consistent and widespread climate change outcomes. Declining snow duration has severe negative consequences for diverse taxa including seasonally color molting species, which rely on snow for camouflage. However, phenotypic plasticity may facilitate adaptation to reduced snow duration. Plastic responses could occur in the color molt phenology or through behavior that minimizes coat color mismatch or its consequences. We quantified molt phenology of 200 wild snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus), and measured microhabitat choice and local snow cover. Similar to other studies, we found that hares did not show behavioral plasticity to minimize coat color mismatch via background matching; instead they preferred colder, snow free areas regardless of their coat color. Furthermore, hares did not behaviorally mitigate the negative consequences of mismatch by choosing resting sites with denser vegetation cover when mismatched. Importantly, we demonstrated plasticity in the initiation and the rate of the molt and established the direct effect of snow on molt phenology; greater snow cover was associated with whiter hares and this association was not due to whiter hares preferring snowier areas. However, despite the observed snow-mediated plasticity in molt phenology, camouflage mismatch with white hares on brown snowless ground persisted and was more frequent during early snowmelt. Thus, we find no evidence that phenotypic plasticity in snowshoe hares is sufficient to facilitate adaptive rescue to camouflage mismatch under climate change.</p>
Data from: Transcriptomic plasticity of mesophotic corals among natural populations and transplants of Montastraea cavernosa in the Gulf of Mexico and Belize
<p>While physiological responses to low-light environments have been studied among corals on mesophotic coral ecosystems worldwide (MCEs; 30–150 m), the mechanisms behind acclimatization and adaptation to depth are not well understood for most coral species. Transcriptomic approaches based on RNA sequencing are useful tools for quantifying gene expression plasticity, particularly in slow-growing species such as scleractinian corals, and for identifying potential functional differences among conspecifics. A tag-based RNA-Seq (Tag-Seq) pipeline was applied to quantify transcriptional variation in natural populations of the scleractinian coral <i>Montastraea cavernosa</i> from mesophotic and shallower environments across five sites in Belize and the Gulf of Mexico: Carrie Bow Cay, West and East Flower Garden Banks, Pulley Ridge, and Dry Tortugas. Regional site location was a stronger driver of gene expression patterns than depth. However, mesophotic corals among all sites shared similar regulation of metabolic and cell growth functional pathways that may represent common physiological responses to environmental conditions at depth. Additionally, in a transplant experiment at West and East Flower Garden Banks, colonies transplanted from mesophotic to shallower habitats diverged from the control mesophotic group over time, indicating depth-regulated plasticity of gene expression. When the shallower depth zone experienced a bleaching event, bleaching severity did not differ significantly between transplants and shallow controls, but gene expression patterns indicated variable regulation of stress responses among depth treatments. Coupled observational and experimental studies of gene expression among mesophotic and shallower <i>M. cavernosa</i> provide insights into the ability of this depth-generalist coral species to persist under varying environmental conditions. </p>
Data from: Does local adaptation along a latitudinal cline shape plastic responses to combined thermal and nutritional stress?
<p>Thermal and nutritional stress are commonly experienced by animals. This will become increasingly so with climate change. Whether populations can plastically respond to such changes will determine their survival. Plasticity can vary among populations depending on the extent of environmental heterogeneity. However, theory conflicts as to whether environmental heterogeneity should increase or decrease plasticity. Using three locally-adapted populations of Drosophila melanogaster sampled from a latitudinal gradient, we investigated whether plastic responses to combinations of nutrition and temperature increase or decrease with latitude for four traits: egg-adult viability, egg-adult development time, and two body size traits. Employing nutritional geometry, we reared larvae on 25 diets varying in protein and carbohydrate content at two temperatures: 18ºC and 25ºC. Plasticity varied among traits and across the three populations. Viability was highly canalized in all three populations. The tropical population showed the least plasticity for development time, the sub-tropical showed the highest plasticity for wing area, and the temperate population showed the highest plasticity for femur length. We found no evidence of latitudinal plasticity gradients in either direction. Our data highlight that differences in thermal variation and resource predictability experienced by populations along a latitudinal cline are not sufficient to predict their plasticity. </p>
Data from: Tradeoffs affect the adaptive value of plasticity: Stronger cannibal-induced defenses incur greater costs in toad larvae
<p>Adaptive developmental plasticity allows individuals to match their phenotype with their environment, which can increase fitness where threats are inconsistently present. Because adaptive traits are not ubiquitously nor infinitely plastic, tradeoffs between benefits and costs or limits are theoretically necessary to constrain plastic responses. Systems in which extreme risk can be reliably detected are ideal for investigating mechanisms that constrain plasticity, as even costly responses may be adaptive where risk is severe. Cane toads (<em>Rhinella marina</em>) are abundant in Australia and produce large clutches (frequently >10,000 eggs), but asynchronous breeding and rapid development result in variable larval densities within breeding pools. In the field, we found that cannibalism by older cohorts often reduces the survival of conspecific eggs and newly hatched pre-feeding larvae ("hatchlings") by >99%, as feeding larvae ("tadpoles") use chemical cues from the relatively immobile hatchlings to locate and consume them. After hatchlings become free-swimming, however, they are safe from cannibalism. Hatchlings can reduce this period of vulnerability by accelerating development when they detect conspecific tadpole cues. However, this developmental acceleration decreases initial tadpole mass, reduces subsequent survival, growth, and development, affects behavior, and compromises feeding structures. Reaction norms differ among clutches, and greater developmental acceleration is followed by greater impairment of larval function in plastic clutches, whereas nonresponsive clutches are unaffected by exposure to cannibal cues. More plastic clutches ultimately exhibit both poorer performance and greater variation among siblings in exposed and (to a lesser degree) control treatments. Variation among clutches in tadpole viability is driven by differences in plasticity rather than phenotype; fitness reductions are linked to developmental acceleration, not rapid development <em>per se</em>. Clutches with intrinsically slow pre-feeding developmental rates exhibit stronger acceleration (i.e., steeper reaction norms), but clutches with intrinsically rapid development reach invulnerable stages more quickly than those that accelerate development. As a result, high cannibalism risk may favor canalized rapid development rather than facultative developmental acceleration. Cannibalism plays an important role in the recruitment of this invasive species, and hatchling defenses against this threat demonstrate how the limits and tradeoffs associated with an inducible defense can favor canalized defenses over phenotypic plasticity.</p>
Data from: More than meets the eye: predator-induced pupil size plasticity in a teleost fish
<p>1. Most animals are visually oriented, and their eyes provide their "window to the world". Eye size correlates positively with visual performance, because larger eyes can house larger pupils that increase photon catch and contrast discrimination, particularly under dim light, which have positive effects on behaviours that enhance fitness, including predator avoidance and foraging.</p> <p>2. Recent studies have linked predation risk to selection for larger eyes and pupils, and such changes should be of importance for the majority of teleost fishes as they have a pupil that is fixed in size (eyes lack a pupillary sphincter muscle) and, hence, do not respond to changes in light conditions.</p> <p>3. Here, we quantify eye and pupil size of individual crucian carp, a common freshwater fish, following controlled manipulations of perceived predation risk (presence/absence). We also tested if crucian carp responded to increased predation risk by shifts in diel activity patterns.</p> <p>4. We found that crucian carp show phenotypic plasticity with regards to pupil size, but not eye size, as pupil size increased when exposed to predators (pike). Predator-exposed crucian carp also shifted from diurnal to nocturnal activity. Using a modelling exercise, we moreover show that the plastically enlarged pupils significantly increase visual range, especially for small objects under dim light conditions.</p> <p>5. Overall, our results provide compelling evidence for predator-induced pupil enlargement resulting in enhanced visual capabilities in a teleost fish. Pupil-size plasticity in combination with the observed shift towards nocturnal activity may allow for efficient foraging also under dark conditions when predation risk from diurnal and visually oriented predators is reduced. The data highlight the powerful role of predation risk for eye development and evolution. 03-Jul-2020</p>
Data from: An experimental investigation of how intraspecific competition and phenotypic plasticity can promote the evolution of novel, complex phenotypes
<p>Intraspecific competition has long been considered a key driver of evolutionary diversification, but whether it can also promote evolutionary innovation is less clear. We examined the interplay between competition and phenotypic plasticity in fueling the origins of a novel, complex phenotype––a distinctive carnivore morph found in spadefoot toad tadpoles (genus <i>Spea</i>) that specializes on fairy shrimp. We specifically sought to explore the possible origins of this phenotype by providing shrimp to <i>Scaphiopus holbrookii</i> tadpoles (the sister genus to <i>Spea </i>that does not produce carnivores) while subjecting them to competition for their standard diet of detritus. Previous research had shown that this species will eat shrimp when detritus is limited, and that these shrimp-fed individuals produce features that are redolent of a rudimentary <i>Spea </i>carnivore. In this study, we found that: 1) behavioral and morphological plasticity enabled some individuals to expand their diet to include shrimp; 2) there was heritable variation in this plasticity; and 3) individuals received a growth and development benefit by eating shrimp. Thus, novel resource use can arise via plasticity as an adaptive response to intraspecific competition. More generally, our results show how competition and plasticity may interact to pave the way for the evolution of complex, novel phenotypes, such as the distinctive carnivore morph in present-day <i>Spea</i>.</p>
Rearing environment affects the genetic architecture and plasticity of DNA methylation in Chinook salmon
<p>Genetic architecture and phenotypic plasticity are important considerations when studying trait variation within and among populations. Since environmental change can induce shifts in the genetic architecture and plasticity of traits, it is important to consider both genetic and environmental sources of phenotypic variation. While there is overwhelming evidence for environmental effects on phenotype, the underlying mechanisms are less clear. Variation in DNA methylation is a potential mechanism mediating environmental effects on phenotype due to its sensitivity to environmental stimuli, transgenerational inheritance, and influences on transcription. To characterize the effect of environment on methylation, we created two 6x6 (North Carolina II) Chinook salmon breeding crosses and reared the offspring in two environments: uniform hatchery tanks and semi-natural stream channels. We sampled the fish twice during development, at the alevin (larval) and fry (juvenile) stages. We measured DNA methylation at 13 genes using a PCR-based bisulfite sequencing protocol. The genetic architecture of DNA methylation differed between rearing environments, with greater additive and non-additive genetic variance in hatchery fish and greater maternal effects in semi-natural channel fish, though gene-specific variation was evident. We observed plasticity in methylation across all assayed genes, as well as gene-specific effects at two genes in alevin and six genes in fry, indicating developmental stage-specific effects of rearing environment on methylation. Characterizing genetic and environmental influences on methylation is critical for future studies on DNA methylation as a potential mechanism for acclimation and adaptation.</p>
Plastic changes in the brain after human hand allotransplantation
<p><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>The physiological mechanism after hand transplant was investigated using magnetic resonance imaging and transcranial magnetic stimulation. Somatosensory and motor representations of the upper arm proximal to amputation occupied the hand area before surgery and moved back toward normal position after the surgery. The absent cortical inhibition with amputation increased gradually after surgery. The cortical plastic changes preceded functional recovery and can be used to monitor functional restoration after hand transplant.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
Data from: Trophic plasticity in a common reef-building coral: Insights from δ13C analysis of essential amino acids
1. Reef-building corals are mixotrophic organisms that can obtain nutrition from endosymbiotic microalgae (autotrophy) and particle capture (heterotrophy). Heterotrophic nutrition is highly beneficial to many corals, particularly in times of stress. Yet the extent to which different coral species rely on heterotrophic nutrition remains largely unknown because it is challenging to quantify. 2. We developed a quantitative approach to investigate coral nutrition using carbon isotope (δ13C) analysis of six essential amino acids (AAESS) in a common Indo-Pacific coral (Pocillopora meandrina) from the fore reef habitat of Palmyra Atoll. We sampled particulate organic matter (POM) and zooplankton as the dominant heterotrophic food sources in addition to the coral host and endosymbionts. We also measured bulk tissue carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope values of each sample type. 3. Patterns among δ13C values of individual AAESS provided complete separation between the autotrophic (endosymbionts) and heterotrophic nutritional sources. In contrast, bulk tissue δ13C and δ15N values were highly variable across the putative food sources and among the coral and endosymbiont fractions, preventing accurate estimates of coral nutrition on Palmyra. 4. We used linear discriminant analysis to quantify differences among patterns of AAESS δ13C values, or 'fingerprints', of the food resources available to corals. This allowed for the development of a quantitative continuum of coral nutrition that can identify the relative contribution of autotrophic and heterotopic nutrition to individual colonies. Our approach revealed exceptional variation in conspecific colonies at scales of meters to kilometers. On average, 41% of AAESS in P. meandrina on Palmyra are acquired via heterotrophy but some colonies appear capable of obtaining the majority of AAESS from one source or the other. 5. The use of AAESS δ13C fingerprinting analysis offers a significant improvement on the current methods for quantitatively assessing coral trophic ecology. We anticipate that this approach will facilitate studies of coral nutrition in the field, which are essential for comparing coral trophic ecology across taxa and multiple spatial scales. Such information will be critical for understanding the role of heterotrophic nutrition in coral resistance and/or resilience to ongoing environmental change.
Data from: Plasticity versus evolutionary divergence: what causes habitat partitioning in urban-adapted birds?
<p>Habitat partitioning can facilitate the coexistence of closely related species, and often results from competitive interference inducing plastic shifts of subordinate species in response to aggressive, dominant species (plasticity), or the evolution of ecological differences in subordinate species that reduce their ability to occupy habitats where the dominant species occurs (evolutionary divergence). Evidence consistent with both plasticity and evolutionary divergence exist, but the relative contributions of each to habitat partitioning have been difficult to discern. Here we use a global dataset on the breeding occurrence of birds in cities to test predictions of these alternative hypotheses to explain previously described habitat partitioning associated with competitive interference. Consistent with plasticity, the presence of behaviorally dominant congeners in a city was associated with a 65% reduction in occurrence of subordinate species, but only when the dominant was a widespread breeder in urban habitats. Consistent with evolutionary divergence, increased range-wide overlap with dominant congeners was associated with a 56% reduction in occurrence of subordinates in cities, even when the dominant was absent from the city. Overall, our results suggest that both plasticity and evolutionary divergence play important, concurrent roles in habitat partitioning among closely related species in urban environments.</p>
Data from: Impact of agricultural weathering on physicochemical properties of biodegradable plastic mulch films: comparison of two diverse climates over four successive years
<p><span><span><span>Biodegradable plastic mulch films (BDMs) are essential in </span><span><span>the</span></span><span> production of vegetable and specialty crops due to their promotion of increased crop yield and quality. Unlike conventional polyethylene (PE) mulches, BDMs can be tilled into the soil after crop harvest to undergo biodegradation, thereby leading to minimal environmental impact. Agricultural weathering impacts both the performance of BDMs during crop production as a barrier to weeds and biodegradability of BDMs in the soil. To better understand the relative importance of climatic factors, the change of physicochemical properties of BDMs during single-season, 3-4 month, field trials for vegetable production at two diverse climates (Knoxville, TN and Mount Vernon, WA) across four successive years (2015-2018) was evaluated. Mulch treatments consisted of four commercially available BDMs composed primarily of polybutylene co-adipate- co-terephthalate (PBAT) that differed in color and polymeric feedstock</span><span><span>, a</span></span><span> black experimental BDM prepared from polylactic acid/polyhydroxybutyrate (PLA/PHA) blend, and conventional PE mulch. </span></span></span></p> <p><span><span><span>Mulch deterioration did not vary extensively between </span><span><span>years. </span></span><span><span>Solar</span></span><span> radiation, an important factor to degradation of mulches, was higher in WA than TN in most sampling years. Yet, degradation occurred </span><span><span>more greatly for</span></span><span> BDMs in TN</span><span><span>,</span></span><span> which </span><span><span>is attributable</span></span><span> to higher temperatures in TN. </span><span><span>Loss of</span></span><span> mechanical properties and color </span><span><span>was greater</span></span><span> than chemical </span><span><span>property changes.</span></span><span> </span><span><span>Differences in the extent of molecular weight decrease</span></span><span> between years correlated significantly with solar radiation </span><span><span>exposure at the two locations.</span></span><span> A black-colored PBAT-based BDM was less susceptible to degradation than equivalent clear and white-on-black films, due to carbon black acting as a photostabilizer. The impact of weathering also differed between </span><span><span>three commercially available PBAT-based films.</span></span><span> The PLA/PHA mulch was more susceptible to degradation than PBAT-based BDMs, particularly in the warmer location, TN, partially due to a leaching out of PHA and lower-molecular weight polymer molecules. The extent of change for physicochemical properties </span><span><span>of</span></span><span> BDMs due to agricultural weathering is greatly affected by polymeric composition, </span><span><span>and is greater in warmer climates.</span></span></span></span></p>
Hedgehog signaling is necessary and sufficient to mediate craniofacial plasticity in teleosts
<p>Phenotypic plasticity, the ability of a single genotype to produce multiple phenotypes under different environmental conditions, is critical for the origins and maintenance of biodiversity; however, the genetic mechanisms underlying plasticity as well as how variation in those mechanisms can drive evolutionary change remain poorly understood. Here, we examine the cichlid feeding apparatus, an icon of both prodigious evolutionary divergence and adaptive phenotypic plasticity. We first provide a tissue-level mechanism for plasticity in craniofacial shape by measuring rates of bone deposition within functionally salient elements of the feeding apparatus in fishes forced to employ alternate foraging modes. We show that levels and patterns of phenotypic plasticity are distinct among closely related cichlid species, underscoring the evolutionary potential of this trait. Next, we demonstrate that hedgehog (Hh) signaling, which has been implicated in the evolutionary divergence of cichlid feeding architecture, is associated with environmentally induced rates of bone deposition. Finally, to demonstrate that Hh levels are the cause of the plastic response and not simply the consequence of producing more bone, we use transgenic zebrafish in which Hh levels could be experimentally manipulated under different foraging conditions. Notably, we find that the ability to modulate bone deposition rates in different environments is dampened when Hh levels are reduced, whereas the sensitivity of bone deposition to different mechanical demands increases with elevated Hh levels. These data advance a mechanistic understanding of phenotypic plasticity in the teleost feeding apparatus and in doing so contribute key insights into the origins of adaptive morphological radiations.</p>
Plastic Packaging Market Estimates and Forecast, by Type, 2014 - 2025
<p>Estimates of historical (2014-2018) and forecast (2019-2025) size of the global market for rigid and flexible plastic packaging.</p>
Extreme developmental instability is associated with the pea aphid wing plasticity
A key focus of evolutionary developmental biology is on how phenotypic diversity is generated. In particular, both plasticity and developmental instability can contribute to phenotypic variation among genetically identical individuals, but the interactions between the two phenomena and their general fitness impacts are unclear. We discovered a striking example of asymmetry in pea aphids: the presence of wings on one side and the complete or partial absence of wings on the opposite side. We used this asymmetric phenotype to study the connection between plasticity, developmental instability, and fitness. We found that this asymmetry equally affects both sides and thus is a developmental instability; is present in some genetically unique lines but not others and thus has a genetic basis; and has intermediate levels of fecundity, and thus does not necessarily have negative fitness consequences. We conclude that this dramatic asymmetry may arise from incomplete switching between developmental targets, linking plasticity and developmental instability. We posit that what we have observed may be a more widespread phenomenon, occurring across species that routinely produce distinct, alternative phenotypes.
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