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Figure 13. Favites Link, 1807 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 13. Favites Link, 1807, has discrete corallites with double or fused walls, septa generally in ≥ four cycles (≥ 48 septa), weak to well-developed paliform (uniaxial) lobes, and spongy columellae. Septal teeth with medium height (0.3– 0.6 mm) and spacing (0.3–1 mm). Walls formed by dominant paratheca and partial septotheca, with strong costa centre clusters and transverse septal crosses. A–C, Favites abdita (Ellis & Solander, 1786), type species of Favites; macromorphology, holotype GLAHM 104005, unknown locality (A; photo by K. G. Johnson); micromorphology (scanning electron microscopy; B) and microstructure (transverse thin section; C), hypotype RMNH 10760, Pulau Air, Indonesia. D–F, Favites flexuosa (Dana, 1846); macromorphology, syntype USNM 27, Fiji (D); micromorphology (E) and microstructure (F), hypotype RMNH 14165, New Caledonia. G–I, Favites rotundata Veron, Pichon & Wijsman-Best, 1977; macromorphology (G) and micromorphology (H; photo by N. Santodomingo), holotype NHMUK 1977.1.1.6, southwest Swain Reefs, Australia; microstructure, hypotype MTQ G61874, Pelorus Island, Australia (I). J–L, Favites valenciennesi (Milne Edwards & Haime, 1849b); macromorphology, holotype MNHN IK-2010-696, unknown locality (J); micromorphology (K) and microstructure (L), hypotype UP P1L02131, Batangas, the Philippines.

Figure 5 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 5. Australogyra Veron & Pichon, 1982, is ramose and has uniserial corallites with few centres, fused walls, septa in

Figure 11. Echinopora Lamarck, 1816 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 11. Echinopora Lamarck, 1816, has discrete corallites that bud extracalicularly, extensive coenosteum (≥ corallite diameter), medium-size (4–15 mm) and low-relief (<3 mm) calices, large (≥ 1/4 of calice width) spongy columellae, and weak/moderate paliform (uniaxial) lobes. Septal teeth are low (<0.3 mm) with medium spacing (0.3–1 mm) and multiaxial tips. Walls formed by partial septotheca and weak abortive septa. A–C, Echinopora lamellosa (Esper, 1795), type species of Echinopora; macromorphology, Echinopora rosularia Lamarck, 1816, holotype of Echinopora MNHN IK-2010-635, unknown locality (A); micromorphology (scanning electron microscopy; B) and microstructure (transverse thin section; C), hypotype USNM 89851, Alofi, Niue. D–F, Echinopora horrida Dana, 1846; macromorphology, syntype USNM 162, Fiji (D); micromorphology (E) and microstructure (F), hypotype RMNH 33956, Kepulauan Seribu, Indonesia. G, Echinopora mammiformis (Nemenzo, 1959); macromorphology, holotype UP C-99, Puerto Galera, the Philippines. H, I, Echinopora gemmacea (Lamarck, 1816); micromorphology, hypotype RMNH 17270, Watamu, Kenya (H); microstructure, hypotype USNM 1113168, Red Sea (I).

Figure 12 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 12. Erythrastrea Pichon, Scheer & Pillai in Scheer & Pillai, 1983, is phaceloid or flabello-meandroid, with equally thick costosepta spaced

Figure 8. Coelastrea Verrill, 1866 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 8. Coelastrea Verrill, 1866, has discrete corallites with double or fused walls, septa in ≥ four cycles (≥ 48 septa), regular free septa, and well-developed septal (multiaxial) lobes. Septal teeth with medium height (0.3–0.6 mm) and spacing (0.3–1 mm). Walls formed by dominant paratheca and partial septotheca, with strong costal and septal medial lines. A, Coelastrea tenuis Verrill, 1866, type species of Coelastrea; macromorphology, holotype YPM IZ 476, unknown locality. B–F, Coelastrea aspera (Verrill, 1866); micromorphology (scanning electron microscopy; B) and microstructure (transverse thin section; C), syntype USNM 402, Ryukyu Islands, Japan; macromorphology, syntype USNM 403, Ryukyu Islands, Japan (D); micromorphology (E) and microstructure (F), hypotype RMNH 13844, Gulf of Aqaba, Israel. G–I, Coelastrea palauensis (Yabe & Sugiyama, 1936); macromorphology, holotype TIU 56631, Palau (G); micromorphology (H) and microstructure (I), hypotype RMNH 14084, New Caledonia.

Figure 1 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 1. Comparisons amongst recent classifications of reef corals examined in this study. Family level taxonomy follows Budd et al. (2012). See Stolarski & Roniewicz (2001) for comparisons with Vaughan & Wells (1943), Wells (1956), Alloiteau (1952), and Chevalier & Beauvais (1987).

Figure 9 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 9. Cyphastrea Milne Edwards & Haime, 1848a has discrete corallites that bud extracalicularly, small (<4 mm) and low-relief (<3 mm) calices, regular free septa, and compact columellae. Septal teeth are low (<0.3 mm) and narrowly spaced (<0.3 mm), with multiaxial tips; strong (pointed) granules scattered on septal face. Walls formed by dominant septotheca. A–C, Cyphastrea microphthalma (Lamarck, 1816), type species of Cyphastrea; macromorphology, holotype MNHN IK-2012–14002, unknown locality (A); micromorphology (scanning electron microscopy; B) and microstructure (transverse thin section; C), hypotype RMNH 15111 (FA1035), southwest Sulawesi, Indonesia. D–F, Cyphastrea chalcidicum (Forskål, 1775); macromorphology, hypotype MTQ G61902, Orpheus Island, Australia (D); micromorphology (E) and microstructure (F), hypotype RMNH 12787, Gulf of Aqaba, Israel. G–I, Cyphastrea serailia (Forskål, 1775); macromorphology, syntype ZMUC ANT-000367, Red Sea (G; photo by M. A. Krag); micromorphology (H) and microstructure (I), hypotype RMNH 15106, southwest Sulawesi, Indonesia.

Figure 4. Astrea Lamarck, 1801 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 4. Astrea Lamarck, 1801, has discrete corallites that bud extracalicularly, medium-size (4–15 mm) and mediumrelief (3–6 mm) calices, septa in three cycles (24–36 septa), well-developed paliform (uniaxial) lobes, and spongy columellae. Septal teeth with low−medium height (≤ 0.6 mm) and medium spacing (0.3–1 mm). Walls formed by dominant paratheca, partial septotheca, and weak abortive septa. A, Astrea rotulosa (Ellis & Solander, 1786), type species of Astrea; macromorphology, holotype GLAHM 104014, unknown locality (photo by KG Johnson). B–F, Astrea curta Dana, 1846; micromorphology (scanning electron microscopy; B) and microstructure (transverse thin section; C), hypotype MTQ G61882, Orpheus Island, Australia; macromorphology (D), micromorphology (E), and microstructure (F), syntype USNM 14, Fiji. G–I, Astrea annuligera Milne Edwards & Haime, 1849b; macromorphology, holotype MNHN IK-2010-699, Australia (G); micromorphology (H) and microstructure (I), hypotype RMNH 10718, Heron Island, Australia.

Figure 3. Merulina Ehrenberg, 1834 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 3. Merulina Ehrenberg, 1834, has uniserial corallites with few centres, fused walls, small (<4 mm) and lowrelief (<3 mm) calices, septa in

Figure 7. Caulastraea Dana, 1846 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 7. Caulastraea Dana, 1846, is phaceloid, with discrete corallites, equally thick costosepta spaced

Figure 10 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 10. Dipsastraea de Blainville, 1830, has discrete corallites that bud intracalicularly, equally thick costosepta, and spongy columellae. Septal teeth with medium height (0.3–0.6 mm) and spacing (0.3–1 mm). Walls formed by dominant paratheca and partial septotheca, with transverse septal crosses. A–C, Dipsastraea favus (Forskål, 1775), type species of Dipsastraea; macromorphology, lectotype ZMUC ANT-000466, Red Sea (A); micromorphology (scanning electron microscopy; B) and microstructure (transverse thin section; C), hypotype USNM 93662, Madang, Papua New Guinea. D, Dipsastraea amicorum (Milne Edwards & Haime, 1849b); macromorphology, holotype MNHN IK-2010-470, Tongatapu, Tonga (photo by P. Lozouet). E, F, Dipsastraea mirabilis (Yabe & Sugiyama, 1941); micromorphology (E) and microstructure (F), hypotype USNM 93642, Madang, Papua New Guinea. G–I, Dipsastraea laddi (Wells, 1954); macromorphology (G), micromorphology (H), and microstructure (I), holotype USNM 44942, Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands. J–L, Dipsastraea pallida (Dana, 1846); macromorphology, syntype USNM 30, Fiji (J); micromorphology (K) and microstructure (L), hypotype USNM 44952, Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands.

Figure 6 in Taxonomic classification of the reef coral families Merulinidae, Montastraeidae, and Diploastraeidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia)

Figure 6. Boninastrea Yabe & Sugiyama, 1935, has uniserial corallites, fused walls, septa in <three cycles (<24 septa), unequally thick costosepta, rudimentary columellae, and abundant (vesicular) endotheca. A, B, Boninastrea boninensis Yabe & Sugiyama, 1935, the type and only living species of Boninastrea; macromorphology, holotype TIU 44970, Ogasawara Islands, Japan.

Figure 41 in Fossils reveal a high diversity of the staghorn coral genera Acropora and Isopora (Scleractinia: Acroporidae) in the Neogene of Indonesia

Figure 41. Isopora matahari sp. nov. A, C, D, Holotype, NHMUK PI AZ 7101, TF56, Badak, East Kalimantan, Early to Middle Miocene (14.8–17.9 Ma). B, paratype, NHMUK PI AZ 9118, TF56, Badak, East Kalimantan, Early to Middle Miocene (14.8–17.9 Ma), sturdy cylindrical branches recovered in the same sample with the holotype. A, whole specimen. C, transverse section of primary branch showing axial corallite. D, detail of incipient branchlet. E and F, detail of small conical and subimmersed radial corallites.

Figure 39 in Fossils reveal a high diversity of the staghorn coral genera Acropora and Isopora (Scleractinia: Acroporidae) in the Neogene of Indonesia

Figure 39. Acropora renemai sp. nov. Holotype, A, D, H, NHMUK PI AZ 7439, TF502, Bontang, East Kalimantan, Late Miocene (9.4–9.8 Ma). A, whole specimen. B, C, E–G, paratype, NHMUK PI AZ 9117, TF502, Bontang, East Kalimantan, Late Miocene (9.4–9.8 Ma): B, AZ 9117a–d anticlockwise, four specimens showing different parts of a colony. C, AZ 9117b, transverse section of a branch showing axial corallite and cylindrical branches. D, AZ 7439, holotype, electron micrograph of the branch tip showing immersed radial corallites. E, AZ 9117e, branch tip showing appressed tubular radial corallites. F, AZ 9117a, detail of appressed tubular radial corallite. G, AZ 9117c, detail of incipient branch and immersed radial corallites. H, AZ 7439, holotype, electron micrograph of dense reticulate coenosteum formed of elaborated spinules.

Figure 38 in Fossils reveal a high diversity of the staghorn coral genera Acropora and Isopora (Scleractinia: Acroporidae) in the Neogene of Indonesia

Figure 38. Acropora hasibuani sp. nov. Holotype, NHMUK PI AZ 7107, TF517, Sangatta, East Kalimantan, Late Miocene (8.9–9.3 Ma). A, whole colony in the field showing arborescent to open caespitose growth form. B, reconstructed part of the holotype colony showing long branches with basal ramification. C, AZ 7107a, b, detail of two fragments of the holotype showing relatively aligned radial corallites. D and E, AZ 7107c, d, electron micrographs long axial corallites and radial corallites. F and G, AZ 7107c, electron micrographs of tubular and tubular appressed radial corallites. H, AZ 7107c, electron micrograph of dense reticulate coenosteum formed of elaborated spinules.

Figure 40. Isopora brueggemanni. A, C, G–I in Fossils reveal a high diversity of the staghorn coral genera Acropora and Isopora (Scleractinia: Acroporidae) in the Neogene of Indonesia

Figure 40. Isopora brueggemanni. A, C, G–I. NHMUK PI AZ 6906. TF516, Sangatta, East Kalimantan, Late Miocene (8.9–9.3 Ma). B, D, F, NHMUK PI AZ 8802, TF516, Sangatta, East Kalimantan, Late Miocene (8.9–9.3 Ma). A, AZ 6906, whole specimen showing branch tip. B, AZ 8802a, b, two specimens showing corallite arrangement and rounded tubular radials. C, AZ 6906, transverse section of a cylindrical branch. D, AZ 8802a, electron micrograph of a branch tip. E, AZ 6906, electron micrograph of a radial corallite showing septa arrangement and more than three synapticular rings. F, AZ 8802a, electron micrograph of axial corallite. G–I AZ 6906: G, electron micrograph of radial corallites; H, electron micrograph of coenosteum showing meandroid spinules; I, detail of meandroid elaborated spinules.

Figure 29 in Fossils reveal a high diversity of the staghorn coral genera Acropora and Isopora (Scleractinia: Acroporidae) in the Neogene of Indonesia

Figure 29. Acropora kirstyae. NHMUK PI AZ 8845, TF56, Badak, East Kalimantan, Early to Middle Miocene (14.8– 17.9 Ma). A, colony fragments showing evidence of arborescent form. B and C, AZ 8845a: B, electron micrograph composition of a branch tip showing axial corallite and appressed tubular radial corallites; C, electron micrograph of an appressed tubular corallite. D and E, AZ 8845b: D, transverse section of a branch showing axial corallite; E, electron micrograph showing variation of radial corallites. F, AZ 8845a, electron micrograph of reticulate elaborated spinules on coenosteum.

Figure 33. Acropora elegans. A in Fossils reveal a high diversity of the staghorn coral genera Acropora and Isopora (Scleractinia: Acroporidae) in the Neogene of Indonesia

Figure 33. Acropora elegans. A, NHMUK PI AZ 9077, TF153, Bontang, East Kalimantan, Early to Middle Miocene (15.3– 17.9 Ma). Aspect of a colony in the field showing horizontally extended branches. B–D, NHMUK PI AZ 7099, TF153, Bontang, East Kalimantan, Early to Middle Miocene (15.3–17.9 Ma): B and C, AZ 7099a-b, specimens interpreted as the main axes and primary branches of a colony. D, AZ 7099b, flattened irregular branch in transverse section. E, AZ 6503, whole specimen. F and G, NHMUK PI AZ 7097, TF153, Bontang, East Kalimantan, Early to Middle Miocene (15.3– 17.9 Ma): F, whole specimen; G, electron micrograph of tubular appressed radial corallites. H–J, NHMUK PI AZ 6503, TF153, Bontang, East Kalimantan, Early to Middle Miocene (15.3–17.9 Ma): H, electron micrograph of tubular appressed radial corallites; I, incipient branch, triangle indicates radial corallite; J, detail of coenosteum with elaborate spinules.

Figure 37 in Fossils reveal a high diversity of the staghorn coral genera Acropora and Isopora (Scleractinia: Acroporidae) in the Neogene of Indonesia

Figure 37. Acropora russelli. NHMUK PI AZ 8834, TF500, Bontang, East Kalimantan, Late Miocene (9.4–9.8 Ma). A, arborescent colony embedded into a fine sediment matrix. B, detail of a branch showing radial corallite arrangement. C and D, detail of axial corallites showing costate coenosteum. E, detail of tubular radial corallite.

Figure 26. Acropora vaughani. A–C, RGM 3998 in Fossils reveal a high diversity of the staghorn coral genera Acropora and Isopora (Scleractinia: Acroporidae) in the Neogene of Indonesia

Figure 26. Acropora vaughani. A–C, RGM 3998, Sonde, Java, Pleistocene (0.8–2.6 Ma). A, whole specimen. B, detail of branch showing irregular distribution of radial corallites. C, detail of radial corallites showing thickened walls. D and E, RGM 167823, Fatu Lulih, Timor, Pliocene to Early Pleistocene (1.8–5.3): D, three fragments showing mid branch and branch tip (up right); E, detail of radial corallites with round calices and thickened walls. F, RGM 125829, Nalawo Valley, Nias, Sumatra, Pleistocene (0.8–2.6 Ma), whole specimen.