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Granule ripples in the Kumtagh Desert, China: morphological and sedimentary characteristics, and development processes
<p>1. Observation of composition and morphology</p> <p>First, we selected typical granule ripples of different sizes and development stages at each observation site, and sampled the surface particles (to a depth of 1 cm) on the ridges of 85 granule ripples by scraping the surface with a steel ruler. The sample weight averaged 428 g (with values ranging between 249 and 697 g). We determined the grain-size distribution using a set of 15 standard sieves with a mesh size ranging from 0.0565 mm to 20 mm. We used the parameters proposed by Folk and Ward (1957) to calculate the grain size characteristics: the cumulative grain size of the 20 percentile (P20), and the average grain diameter, sorting coefficient, skewness, and kurtosis. Here, P20 represents the particle size corresponding to the cumulative distribution rate of 20% in the cumulative particle-size distribution diagram.</p> <p>Second, we defined ripple morphological characteristics (the wavelength, ripple height, ripple index, and symmetry coefficient) for 142 granule ripples by measuring their wavelength, ripple height, and ridge position. The ripple index (<em>Z</em>) equaled the ratio of the wavelength to the ripple height. The symmetry coefficient equaled the ratio of the horizontal windward slope length to the horizontal leeward slope length.</p> <p>Wavelength represents the horizontal distance between two crests, and the ripple height is the perpendicular height from the trough to the crest.</p> <p>We also excavated vertical profiles of five typical granule ripples with different sizes, and measured the stratification thickness for one ripple with a wavelength of 5 m, for a vertical profile whose depth was 60 cm. Based on the different grain size characteristics, we identified five strata and therefore obtained five sediment samples with different depths, and analyzed the vertical distribution of particle sizes in the sediment.</p> <p>We installed HOBO U30 field anemometers (Onset Computers, Bourne, MA, USA) at a height of 2 m and installed an eight-direction sand trap in the two areas in January 2011 to obtain the wind speed, wind direction, and the single-width sediment transport for a full year. The sensor type of wind speed and direction was S-WSET-A. The collection frequency for the wind speed and direction was 10 minutes, and the resolution of the wind speed and direction were 0.38 m/s and 1.4°, respectively. It is worth mentioning that Onset anemometers have a 5-degree window where they cannot measure wind direction, between 355 and 0 degrees. Unlike sand ripples, granule ripples are not particularly sensitive to wind direction, and these wind direction data only provide a regional main direction for the research, so a 5-degree window has little impact. The collection frequency of the sediment transport rate was 1 month, and the resolution was 10 g. The width and height of each collecting port of the sand trap were 2 cm and 1.2 m, respectively.</p> <p>2. Wind tunnel experiment to detect the gravel threshold velocity</p> <p>We performed a wind tunnel simulation experiment to test the impact threshold velocity of the gravels. We used the high-speed wind tunnel at the High Speed Railway Construction Technology National Engineering Laboratory of Central South University in Changsha, Hunan Province in the validation test. We used surface sediments from granule ripples collected at our study area, and screened these sediments through 12 sieves with a mesh size ranging from 1.6 to 31.5 mm. We used the sieved material to create 10 different test surfaces with an average particle size ranging from 1.8 to 25.8 mm, which we subsequently bombarded with saltating particles from an upwind source. The upwind supply rate for the impacting particles was 1.2 kg/min, and their particle size ranged from 0.8 to 1.0 mm, with an average size of 0.9 mm, in all tests. The impacting particles were also obtained from the surface sediments of the granule ripples and were obtained by screening. The gravel bed surface was 80 cm long (parallel to the long axis of the wind tunnel), 40 cm wide, and 3 cm deep with its upper surface level with the wind tunnel floor. To increase the roughness of the surface, we glued a layer of coarse sand with a mean particle size of 0.9 mm that was 4.2 m long by 40 cm wide to the floor of the wind tunnel immediately upwind of the gravel bed.</p> <p>We observed the particles with a high-speed camera in the wind tunnel to determine the type of motion (vibration, roll, obvious roll, saltation, obvious saltation). The wind velocities were measured using a pitot tube at 10 heights (6, 7.5, 13, 21, 41, 83, 123, 161, 220, and 242 mm above the gravel bed).</p> <p>3. Measurement of the granule ripple migration rate</p> <p>We chose a 25-m<sup>2</sup> area at the yardang site, and monitored the migration rate of some smaller typical granule ripples from 11 October 2011 to 15 October 2012 using six marking pins, at an east–west spacing of 5 m between pins. The average wavelength of these granule ripples was 1.6 m and the average height was 0.09 m. The mean grain size in the ridge was 2.08 mm, and the maximum grain size was 6.5 mm. We also chose 11 larger granule ripples (5 to 9 m in wavelength, 30 to 50 cm in height, granule size in the ridge of 6 to 10 mm) that were continuously distributed at the yardang site, and measured their migration rate over an 8-year period from 2011 to 2019 by using marking pins. Based on the migration rate, we applied the equation developed by Jerolmack et al. (2006) to calculate the sediment creep flux (<em>q</em><sub>c</sub>) at the ridge of the granule ripples:</p> <p><em>q</em><em><sub>c</sub></em> = (1-<em>p</em>) <em>ρ</em><em>cH </em>/ 2</p> <p>where<em> p</em> is the porosity of the ripple sediment (30%), ρ is the particle density (2650 kg m<sup>-3</sup>), <em>c</em> is the ripple migration rate (m/year), and <em>H</em> is the ripple height (m).</p>
Exposure to elevated temperature during development affects bumblebee foraging behavior
<p><span>Bee foraging behavior provides a pollination service that has both ecological and economic benefits. However, bee population decline could directly affect the efficiency of this interaction. Among the drivers of this decline, global warming has been implicated as an emerging threat but exactly how increasing temperatures affect bee foraging behavior remains unexplored. Here, we assessed how exposure to elevated temperatures during development affects the foraging behavior and morphology of workers from commercial and wild <em>Bombus terrestris</em> colonies. Workers reared at 33°C had a higher visiting rate and shorter visiting time than those reared at 27°C. In addition, far fewer workers reared at 33°C engaged in foraging activities and this is potentially related to the drastic reduction in the number of individuals produced in colonies exposed to 33°C. The impact of elevated developmental temperature on wild colonies was even stronger as none of the workers from these colonies performed any foraging trips. We also found that rearing temperature affected wing size and shape. Our results provide the first evidence that colony temperature can have striking effects on bumblebee foraging behavior. Of particular importance is the drastic reduction in the number of workers performing foraging trips, and the total number of foraging trips made by workers reared in high temperatures. Further studies should explore if, ultimately, these observed effects of exposure to elevated temperature during development lead to a reduction in pollination efficiency.</span></p>
FIG. 37 in Miniaturization in Direct-Developing Frogs from Mexico with the Description of Six New Species
FIG. 37.—Gonad coloration and morphology in the genus Craugastor: pigmented testes in C. mexicanus (A, UTA A-66090); partially pigmented ovaries in C. mexicanus (B, UTA A-56558); pigmented maturing ova in C. mexicanus (C, UTA A-64413); unpigmented testes in C. fitzingeri (D, BMNH 1979.344), unpigmented ovaries in C. fitzingeri, (E, BMNH 1979.343); unpigmented testes in C. noblei (F, BMNH 1987.779); maturing ova and oviducts in C. loki (G, BMNH 1973.2439); ovaries in C. loki (H, BMNH 1973.2444). Acolor version of this figure is available online.
FIG. 29 in Miniaturization in Direct-Developing Frogs from Mexico with the Description of Six New Species
FIG. 29.—Ventral coloration and areolate skin texture of Craugastor omiltemanus. Venter in preservative, an arrow indicates the large inner metatarsal tubercle that is characteristic of the species (A, BMNH 1947.2.16.44, SVL ¼ 36.5 mm, photo by W.-Y. Cooper); venter in preservative (B, BMNH 1947.2.16.47, SVL ¼ 39.6 mm, photo by W.-Y. Cooper); venter in life (C, UTA Field ID: JAC 27695); venter in life (D, UTA Field ID: JAC 27694). Acolor version of this figure is available online.
FIG. 34 in Miniaturization in Direct-Developing Frogs from Mexico with the Description of Six New Species
FIG. 34.—Male holotype of Craugastor rubinus (A, UTA A-62345, SVL ¼ 12.6 mm), male paratype (B, MZFC-HE-35616, SVL ¼ 10.8 mm) and male paratype (C, UTA A-62347, SVL ¼ 11.5 mm). All from Talpa de Allende, Jalisco, Mexico, 1771 m. Leaf litter at the type locality where the specimens were collected (D).
FIG. 6 in Miniaturization in Direct-Developing Frogs from Mexico with the Description of Six New Species
FIG. 6.—Distribution of Craugastor mexicanus, C. montanus, C. pygmaeus, and C. saltator in Mexico and Guatemala. Dots inside symbols indicate individuals used in the molecular analyses in this study. Relevant type localities are indicated by text and arrows.
FIG. 28 in Miniaturization in Direct-Developing Frogs from Mexico with the Description of Six New Species
FIG. 28.—Female holotype of Craugastor greggi (FMNH 20876, SVL ¼ 36.0 mm) of the C. laticeps series (sensu Hedges et al. 2008) from Volcan Tajumulco, near San Marcos, Guatemala, in dorsal (left) and ventral (right) views. Images courtesy of the Field Museum of Natural History. Acolor version of this figure is available online.
FIG. 26 in Miniaturization in Direct-Developing Frogs from Mexico with the Description of Six New Species
FIG. 26.—Skulls of 'Microbatrachylus lineatissimus' (A, paratype, FMNH 104548), Craugastor mexicanus (B, UTA A-56558) and C. pygmaeus (C, UTA A-64272) in dorsal and lateral views. Posterolateral projection of the frontoparietal on C. mexicanus (B) is indicated by an arrow and grey shading. Acolor version of this figure is available online.
FIG. 31 in Miniaturization in Direct-Developing Frogs from Mexico with the Description of Six New Species
FIG. 31.—Subadult female holotype of Craugastor polaclavus (UTA A-62392, SVL ¼ 14.7 mm) from San Pedro Pochutla district, Portillo del Rayo, Oaxaca, Mexico, 1550–1585 m. Acolor version of this figure is available online.
FIG. 33 in Miniaturization in Direct-Developing Frogs from Mexico with the Description of Six New Species
FIG. 33.—Male Craugastor pygmaeus (A, UTA A-64283, SVL ¼ 14.6 mm, photo by Matthew Ingrasci) from Oaxaca, Mexico; female (B, UTA A-64262, SVL ¼ 13.7 mm) from Oaxaca, Mexico; female (C, UTA A-64266, SVL ¼ 17.0 mm) from Oaxaca, Mexico; male (D, UTA A-64263, SVL ¼ 12.4) from Guerrero, Mexico. Acolor version of this figure is available online.
FIG. 24 in Miniaturization in Direct-Developing Frogs from Mexico with the Description of Six New Species
FIG. 24.—Female paratype (A, MZFC-HE-35614, SVL ¼ 15.8 mm) and male holotype (B, UTA A-62348, SVL ¼ 12.3 mm) of Craugastor cueyatl from type locality; male paratype (C, AMNH A-57809, SVL ¼ 11.7 mm) from Tepozteco, Morelos, Mexico, ~2000 m (C). Leaf litter habitat near the type locality east of Cerro Gordo, Estado de México, Mexico, 2282 m (D).
FIG. 25 in Miniaturization in Direct-Developing Frogs from Mexico with the Description of Six New Species
FIG. 25.—View from the type locality of Craugastor hobartsmithi, Uruapan, Michoacán, looking toward Cerro Tancitaro (A). Craugastor cf. hobartsmithi; female (B, UTA A-66134, SVL ¼ 13.2 mm); male (C, MZFC-HE-35613, SVL ¼ 9.6 mm); female (D, UTA A-66133, SVL ¼ 18.3 mm); all from near Las Playitas (Carretera Playitas–Torre de Microndas), Michoacán, Mexico, 1565 m. Craugastor cf. hobartsmithi from Montitlan, Colima, Mexico photographed 13 April 2020 (E, F, not collected, photo by J. Reyes-Velasco). Acolor version of this figure is available online.
FIG. 21 in Miniaturization in Direct-Developing Frogs from Mexico with the Description of Six New Species
FIG. 21.—Ventral surface of the foot in representative specimens of the Craugastor mexicanus series. Female paratype of C. bitonium (A, UTA A-66118, SVL ¼ 16.7 mm); female paratype of C. candelariensis (B, UTA A-55247, SVL ¼ 18.6 mm); female paratype of C. cueyatl (C, MZFC-HE-35614. SVL ¼ 17.2 mm); male C. hobartsmithi (D, UMMZ 94231, SVL ~11 mm, photo by J. David Curlis); male C. mexicanus (E, UTA A-6907, SVL ¼ 22.3 mm); male Craugastor montanus (F, UMMZ 88002, SVL ¼ 21.8 mm); male C. omiltemanus (G, UTA A-66139, SVL ¼ 18.1 mm); female holotype of C. polaclavus (H, UTA A-62392, SVL ¼ 14.7 mm); female paratype of C. portilloensis (I, MZFC-HE-35581, SVL ¼ 12.1 mm); female C. pygmaeus (J, UTA A-54809, SVL ¼ 17.3 mm); male paratype of C. rubinus (K, MZFC-HE-35616, SVL ¼ 10.8 mm); female C. saltator (L, UTA A-55239, SVL ¼ 38.2 mm). Acolor version of this figure is available online.
FIG. 30 in Miniaturization in Direct-Developing Frogs from Mexico with the Description of Six New Species
FIG. 30.—Adult Craugastor omiltemanus (A, MZFC-HE-35699 [field ID: TJD 780], SVL ¼ unavailable, photo by Thomas Devitt) from near Mazatlán, Guerrero; female (B, UTA A-66140, SVL ¼ 30.5 mm) from habitat along the road between Chichihualco and Chilpancingo, Guerrero, 2221 m; male (C, UTA A-64264, SVL ¼ 12.9 mm) from near Ayutla, Oaxaca, 1900 m; female (D, UTA A-60796, SVL ¼ 27.5 mm) from Sierra de Malinaltepec (Carretera San Luis Acatlán–Tlapa de Comonfort), 2298 m; habitat found 13.2 km west of Mazatlán, Sierra Madre del Sur (E, photo by Thomas Devitt); habitat found in the Sierra Madre del Sur west of Chilpancingo, Guerrero (F). Acolor version of this figure is available online.
FIG. 27 in Miniaturization in Direct-Developing Frogs from Mexico with the Description of Six New Species
FIG. 27.—Examples of intraspecific polymorphism in Craugastor mexicanus from Mexico; female (A, UTA A-56558, SVL ¼ 37.3 mm) from Putla de Guerrero municipality; Oaxaca, female (B, UTA A-64415, SVL ¼ 28.3 mm) from Carretera Sola de Vega–Juquila, Oaxaca; subadult (C, UTA A-64271, SVL ¼ 11.9 mm) from Carretera Sola de Vega–Juquila, Oaxaca; subadult and adult (D, UTA A-64258, SVL ¼ 13.6 mm and MZFC-HE-35584, SVL ¼ unavailable) both from 8.1 mi south of Sola de Vega, Oaxaca; adult (E, UTA A-66107, SVL ¼ unavailable) from Carretera Sola de Vega–Juquila, Oaxaca; subadult (F, UTA A-64260, SVL ¼ 16.6 mm) from Carretera Sola de Vega–Juquila, Oaxaca; female (G, UTA A-64413, SVL ¼ 23.5) from Sierra Miahuatlán, Oaxaca; female (H, UTA A-56579, SVL ¼ 21.3 mm) from Sierra Negra, Puebla; female (I, UTA A-56559, SVL ¼ 35.4 mm) from Sierra Mazateca, Puerto Soledad, Oaxaca; subadult (J, UTA A-64257, SVL ¼ 17.6 mm) from Sierra Mixe, Carretera Ayutla–Zacatepec, Oaxaca; subadult (K, UTA A-64259, SVL ¼ 10.9 mm) from 6.1 mi south of San Miguel Suchixtepec, Oaxaca; subadult (L, UTA A-66138, SVL ¼ unavailable) from 20 mi east of Tulancingo, Hidalgo. Acolor version of this figure is available online.
FIG. 23 in Miniaturization in Direct-Developing Frogs from Mexico with the Description of Six New Species
FIG. 23.—Male paratype of Craugastor candelariensis (MZFC-HE-35617, SVL ¼ 12.4 mm) from Sierra Madre del Sur, 1.2 mi on the road between Candelaria and Portillo del Rayo, Pluma Hidalgo, Oaxaca, Mexico, 1051 m. Acolor version of this figure is available online.
FIG. 20 in Miniaturization in Direct-Developing Frogs from Mexico with the Description of Six New Species
FIG. 20.—Ventral surface of the hand in representative specimens of the Craugastor mexicanus series. Female paratype of C. bitonium (A, UTA A-66118, SVL ¼ 16.7 mm); female paratype of C. candelariensis (B, UTA A-55247, SVL ¼ 18.6 mm); male holotype of C. cueyatl (C, UTA A-62348, SVL ¼ 13.0 mm); female C. hobartsmithi (D, UMMZ 94230, SVL ~12 mm, photo by J. David Curlis); female C. mexicanus (E, UTA A-28754, SVL ¼ 35.9 mm); male Craugastor montanus (F, UMMZ 88002, SVL ¼ 21.8 mm); female C. omiltemanus (G, UTA A-66140, SVL ¼ 30.9 mm); female C. polaclavus (H, UTA A-66097, SVL ¼ 16.0 mm); female holotype of C. portilloensis (I, UTA A-62393, SVL ¼ 11.4 mm); female C. pygmaeus (J, UTA A-54809, SVL ¼ 17.3 mm); male holotype of C. rubinus (K, UTA A-62345, SVL ¼ 12.6 mm); male C. saltator (L, UTA A-54931, SVL ¼ 18.4 mm). Acolor version of this figure is available online.
FIG. 13 in Miniaturization in Direct-Developing Frogs from Mexico with the Description of Six New Species
FIG. 13.—Evidence of sexual dimorphism of tympanum width in Craugastor mexicanus (left) and C. pygmaeus (right). Sex was determined by directly examining gonads for select specimens of C. mexicanus and is implied by scaling patterns in those specimens where sex was not directly determined. Downloaded From: https://bioone.org/journals/Herpetological-Monographs on 04 May 2022
FIG. 14 in Miniaturization in Direct-Developing Frogs from Mexico with the Description of Six New Species
FIG. 14.—Dorsal body surface in representative specimens of the Craugastor mexicanus series. Female holotype of C. bitonium (A, UTA A-64254, SVL ¼ 15.8 mm); male holotype of C. candelariensis (B, UTA A-64253, SVL ¼ 13.3 mm); male holotype of C. cueyatl (C, UTA A-62348, SVL ¼ 13.0 mm); male C. hobartsmithi (D, UMMZ 94231, SVL ~11 mm, photo by J. David Curlis); male C. mexicanus (E, UTA A-6907, SVL ¼ 22.3 mm); male C. montanus (F, UMMZ 88002, SVL ¼ 21.8 mm); female C. omiltemanus (G, UTA A-66140, SVL ¼ 30.9 mm); female holotype of C. polaclavus (H, UTA A-62392, SVL ¼ 14.7 mm); female holotype of C. portilloensis (I, UTA A-62393, SVL ¼ 11.4 mm); female C. pygmaeus (J, UTA A-54809, SVL ¼ 17.3 mm); male holotype of C. rubinus (K, UTA A-62345, SVL ¼ 12.6 mm); female C. saltator (L, UTA A-55239, SVL ¼ 38.2 mm). Acolor version of this figure is available online.
FIG. 15 in Miniaturization in Direct-Developing Frogs from Mexico with the Description of Six New Species
FIG. 15.—Ventral body surface in representative specimens of the Craugastor mexicanus series. Female holotype of C. bitonium (A, UTA A-64254, SVL ¼ 15.8 mm); male holotype of C. candelariensis (B, UTA A-64253, SVL ¼ 13.3 mm); male holotype of C. cueyatl (C, UTA A-62348, SVL ¼ 13.0 mm); female C. hobartsmithi (D, UMMZ 94230, SVL ~12 mm, photo by J. David Curlis); female C. mexicanus (E, UTA A-28754, SVL ¼ 35.9 mm); male C. montanus (F, UMMZ 88002, SVL ¼ 21.8 mm); female C. omiltemanus (G, UTA A-66140, SVL ¼ 30.9 mm); female holotype of C. polaclavus (H, UTA A-62392, SVL ¼ 14.7 mm); female holotype of C. portilloensis (I, UTA A-62393, SVL ¼ 11.4 mm); female C. pygmaeus (J, UTA A-54809, SVL ¼ 17.3 mm); male holotype of C. rubinus (K, UTA A-62345, SVL ¼ 12.6 mm); female C. saltator (L, UTA A-55239, SVL ¼ 38.2 mm). Acolor version of this figure is available online.
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