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Figure 6 in A new species of Noblella (Amphibia: Strabomantidae) from the Río Manduriacu Reserve on the Pacific slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes
Figure 6. Right hand (A) and foot (B) in dorsal view of Noblella worleyae sp. nov. ZSFQ 345, paratype, adult male, SVL = 17.9 mm.
Figure 5 in A new species of Noblella (Amphibia: Strabomantidae) from the Río Manduriacu Reserve on the Pacific slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes
Figure 5. Dorsal and ventral color patterns of Noblella worleyae sp. nov. in life. (A, D) Dorsal pattern and ventral pattern of ZSFQ 2504, paratype, adult male, SVL = 15.5 mm; (B, E) dorsal pattern and ventral pattern of ZSFQ 2502, paratype, adult male, SVL = 15.9 mm; (C, F) dorsal pattern and ventral pattern of ZSFQ 550, paratype, adult male, SVL = 17.3 mm; (G, J) dorsal pattern and ventral pattern of ZSFQ 552, paratype, adult female, SVL = 19.1 mm; (H, K–L) dorsal pattern and ventral pattern of ZSFQ 550, paratype, adult male, SVL = 17.3 mm; (I) dorsal pattern of an uncollected specimen. Photographs by Jaime Culebras (a, b, d, e), José Vieira (c, f), Ross Maynard (g–k) and Scott Trageser (l).
Figure 3 in A new species of Noblella (Amphibia: Strabomantidae) from the Río Manduriacu Reserve on the Pacific slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes
Figure 3. Noblella worleyae sp. nov., holotype, ZSFQ 551, adult female, SVL = 18.1 mm. (A) palmar surface; (B) plantar surface; (C) dorsal view of the head; (D) lateral view of the head. Illustrations by Carolina Reyes-Puig.
Figure 2 in A new species of Noblella (Amphibia: Strabomantidae) from the Río Manduriacu Reserve on the Pacific slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes
Figure 2. Map of Ecuador showing the location of Río Manduriacu Reserve, the type locality (red triangle) of Noblella worleyae sp. nov.
Thermal adaptations to extreme freeze-thaw cycles in the high tropical Andes
<p>Temperature plays a key role in the biology of ectotherms, including anurans, which are found at higher elevations in the tropics than anywhere in the temperate zone. High-elevation tropical environments are characterized by extreme daily thermal fluctuation including high daily maxima and nightly freezing. Our study investigated the contrasting operative temperatures of the anurans <i>Telmatobius marmoratus </i>and<i> Pleurodema marmoratum</i> in different environmental contexts at the same elevation and biome above 5200 meters. <i>Telmatobius marmoratus</i> avoids extremes of daily temperature fluctuation by utilizing thermally buffered aquatic habitat at all life stages, with minimal operative temperature variation (range: 4.6–8.0°C).<i> Pleurodema marmoratum</i>, in contrast, experienced operative temperatures from -3.5 to 44°C and has one of the widest thermal breadths reported for any tropical frog, from >32°C (critical thermal maximum) to surviving freezing periods of 1 hr and 6 hr down to -3.0°C. Our findings expand experimental evidence of frost tolerance in amphibians to the widespread Neotropical family Leptodactylidae, the first such evidence of frost tolerance in a tropical amphibian. Our study identifies three strategies (wide thermal tolerance breadth, use of buffered microhabitats, and behavioral thermoregulation), which allow these tropical frogs to withstand the current wide daily thermal fluctuation above 5000 masl and which may help them adapt to future climatic changes.</p>
Thermal niche traits of high alpine plant species and communities across the tropical Andes and their vulnerability to global warming
<a name="_Hlk10643461">Aim</a> <p>The Climate Variability Hypothesis (CVH) predicts that locations with reduced seasonal temperature variation select for species with narrower thermal ranges. Here we (1) test the CVH by assessing the effect of latitude and elevation on the thermal ranges of Andean vascular plant species and communities, and (2) assess tropical alpine plants vulnerability to warming based on their thermal traits.</p> Location <p>Tropical Andes</p> Taxon <p>Vascular plants</p> Methods <p>Temperature data for 505 vascular plant species from alpine communities on 49 summits, were extracted from 29,627 geo-referenced occurrences. Species thermal niche traits (TNTs) were estimated using bootstrapping for: minimum temperature, optimum (mean) temperature, and breadth (maximum-minimum). Plant community-weighted scores were estimated using the TNTs of their constituent species. CVH was tested for species, biogeographic species groups and communities. Vulnerability to global warming was assessed for species, biogeographic species groups and communities.</p> Results <p>Species restricted to the equator showed narrower thermal niche breadth than species whose ranges stretch far from the equator, however, no difference in niche breadth was found across summits' elevation. Biogeographic species groups distributed close to the equator and restricted to alpine regions showed narrower niche breadth than those with broader ranges. Community weighted-scores of thermal niche breadth were positively related to distance from equator but not to elevation. Based on their TNTs, species restricted to equatorial latitudes and plant communities dominated by these species were identified as the most vulnerable to the projected 1.5 °C warming, due to a potentially higher risk of losing thermal niche space.</p> Main conclusions <p>Our study confirms that the CVH applies to high tropical Andean plant species and communities, where latitude had a strong effect on the thermal niche breadth. TNTs are identified as suitable indicators of species' vulnerability to warming and are suggested to be included in long-term biodiversity monitoring in the Andes.</p>
The fate of páramo plant assemblages in the sky islands of the northern Andes - Appendix S1. Vegetation and occurrence data used in this study
<p><strong>Aims:</strong> Assessing climate change impacts on biodiversity is a main scientific challenge, especially in the tropics, therefore, we predicted the future of plant species and communities on the unique páramo sky islands. We implemented the <i>Spatially Explicit Species Assemblage Modelling</i> framework, by i) calculating species' maximum dispersal distance, ii) modelling species distributions at present up to 2100, iii) assembling models into communities. Finally, we assessed the vulnerability of sky islands based on richness and composition changes.</p> <p><strong>Location: </strong>Ecuadorian super-páramo (>4200 m)</p> <p><strong>Methods:</strong> Using species trait data, the maximum dispersal distance of 435 species was calculated. Species distribution models (SDM) were fitted to obtain current and future distribution predictions based on dispersal and bioclimatic factors. The final assemblages for present and 2100 were achieved by stacking all probabilistic SDMs and applying the probability ranking rule. The vulnerability of each sky island was evaluated by quantifying richness and composition changes.</p> <p><strong>Results: </strong>Maximum dispersal distances ranged between 0.008-6027 m/year, and across all scenarios, 70% of models showed a net loss in species distribution while 9% of all species were predicted to undergo extinction by 2100. Local richness was estimated to decrease by 56.63% on average, and composition changes in each sky island suggested a mean loss of 64.74% of their original species pool against a 12.97% gain. Finally, 5% of the sky island floras reconverted from high-elevation to low-elevation species. These numbers were usually more important for high-elevation species and the mountains Pichincha, Ilinizas and Antisana.</p> <p><strong>Conclusions:</strong> Our study is methodologically pioneer and provides novel insight on the future of páramo biodiversity. Significant losses in species distribution and changes in community richness and composition suggest drastic impacts and call for further study considering additional factors, such as land-use. Finally, we recommend focusing monitoring and conservation strategies on the northern sky islands in priority.</p>
FIGURE 3 in A new species of cat-eyed snake (Serpentes: Dipsadinae: Leptodeirini) from the Andes of southern Ecuador
FIGURE 3. General view of Leptodeira misinawui sp. nov. in life. Top: holotype (MZUA-RE 0253); bottom: paratype (QCAZ 16510), adult male from Azuay province, road Santa Isabel-Pasaje. Photographs by E. Celi (top) and G. Pazmiño (bottom).
FIGURE 1 in A new species of cat-eyed snake (Serpentes: Dipsadinae: Leptodeirini) from the Andes of southern Ecuador
FIGURE 1. Phylogeny of Leptodeira. Maximum likelihood tree obtained from a RAXML analysis of three mitochondrial (16S, cytb, ND4) and two nuclear genes (NT3, DNAH3). Numbers next to branches are bootstrap support values; for clarity, support values on short branches are not shown. Voucher number is indicated for each terminal. In addition, country (if available) preceded by Department or Province are shown for taxa in the Leptodeira annulata/septentrionalis complex except L. maculata, L. rhombifera, and L. polysticta. Clade numbers (see Results) are shown next to vertical bars. Specimens sequenced in this paper are colored in brown. GenBank accession numbers along with more detailed locality data of newly sequenced specimens are presented in Table 1. Outgroup species Dipsas pratti is not shown.
FIGURE 2 in A new species of cat-eyed snake (Serpentes: Dipsadinae: Leptodeirini) from the Andes of southern Ecuador
FIGURE 2. Male holotype (MZUA-RE 0253) and female paratype (MZUA-RE 0252) of Leptodeira misinawui sp. nov. in preservative. Dorsal (A) and ventral (B) views of body, and dorsal, ventral and lateral views of head (C) of the holotype. Dorsal (D) and ventral (E) views of body, and dorsal, ventral and lateral views of head (F) of the paratype. Photographs by J.C. Sánchez. Scale bar (C, F) = 10 mm.
Data from: Rapid diversification and time explain amphibian richness at different scales in the Tropical Andes, Earth's most biodiverse hotspot
The Tropical Andes are Earth's most species-rich biodiversity hotspot for both animals and plants. Nevertheless, the ecological and evolutionary processes underlying this extraordinary richness remain uncertain. Here, we examine the processes that generate high richness in the Andes relative to other regions in South America, and across different elevations within the Andes, using frogs as a model system. We combine distributional data, a newly generated time-calibrated phylogeny for 2318 frog species, and phylogenetic comparative methods to test the relative importance of diversification rates and colonization times for explaining Andean diversity at different scales. At larger scales (among regions and families), we find that faster diversification rates in Andean clades most likely explain high Andean richness. In contrast, at smaller temporal and spatial scales (within family-level clades, within the Andes), diversification rates rarely explain richness patterns. Instead, we show that colonization times are important for shaping elevational richness patterns within the Andes, with more species found in habitats colonized earlier. We suggest that these scale-dependent patterns might apply to many other richness gradients. Recognition of this scale-dependence may help to reconcile conflicting results among studies of richness patterns across habitats, regions, and organisms.
Data from: Ecological and spatial patterns associated with diversification of the shrub genus Tetraglochin along Southern-Central Andes (Rosaceae)
In addition to the degree of geographical isolation (sympatry, parapatry, allopatry and peripatry), ecology can be an important factor promoting diversification of lineages, both by niche divergence as well as niche conservatism. Tetraglochin is a genus of shrubs with six species distributed along the Southern and Central Andes, from Peru to southern Argentina and central Chile. Although monophyly of the genus as the identity of its species are well established, spatiotemporal framework for its diversification and the potential role of the ecology and geography in the speciation process remain unknown. In the present study we analyzed diversification times and historical biogeography of the genus, and conducted different climatic niche and geographical range comparisons among its species to determine possible patterns associated with speciation. Results support the Pleistocene diversification, early along the Southern Andes and the Patagonian Steppe and subsequently in the Central Andes. Climatic niche divergence did not prove to be a major factor promoting speciation, but rather the phylogenetic niche conservatism. Our analyses also favored the sympatric model of speciation, although patterns from geographical range evolution are difficult to interpret due to the lability on the ancestral distributions, and therefore micro-allopatric or parapatric divergence associated with the glacial-interglacial cycles and climatic oscillations throughout the Quaternary should not be discarded. Other potential factors associated with diversification of Tetraglochin are also discussed.
Data from: Recent decadal drought reverts warming–triggered growth enhancement in contrasting climates in the southern Andes treeline
Aims: Rising temperature and declining summer precipitation due to the 1970s-climate shift in southern South America have reduced forest productivity at dry sites. Here, we worked with the most widespread Southern Hemisphere treeline species, Nothofagus pumilio, across contrasting climatic conditions and determined whether rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations as well as warmer and drier climatic conditions provoked by the 70s-climatic shift have been causing systematic changes in treeline growth rates and intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE).Location: 36–54° S, southern Andes. Time period: 1950–2010. Major taxa studied: Nothofagus pumilio. Methods: We worked at five disparate climatic treeline locations, spanning 18 degrees of latitude; at each location, we sampled trees at four different elevations, including treeline elevation. We quantified the variation of annual tree-ring width (TRW) as a function of climate, elevation, tree age, size, annual CO2 concentrations, and location, using linear mixed-effects models and interpreted TRW trends in relation to iWUE and isotope (δ13C and δ18O) signalling. Results: Across locations, the patterns of treeline growth occurring in the 1980–2010 period exhibited a clear and significant negative trend, in contrast to the previous 1950–1980 period. We found an increase of iWUE and δ18O across time and locations. Given that an increase in δ18O indicates a decrease in stomatal conductance, we assert that drought-induced stomatal closure appears to be causing the reduction in growth. Main conclusions: We show unequivocal evidence that warmer and drier summer conditions translated into a decrease of growth rates along the elevational treeline of the southern Andes, reverting previous growth improvements linked to climate warming. An improvement in iWUE at all locations is most likely explained by decreased stomatal conductance given the rising δ18O signal. An iWUE–growth decoupling may act as an ecological strategy to respond to drought.
Data from: An assessment of carbon and nutrient limitations in the formation of the southern Andes treeline
Although the principal mechanism determining tree line formation appears to be carbon (C)-sink limitations due to low temperatures, few studies have assessed the complementary role of reduced soil nutrient availability with elevation. We tested the hypothesis that nutrient (especially nitrogen, N) limitations at tree line may directly (via C-source) or indirectly (via C-sink) reduce the growth of a winter deciduous tree line species. If a shortage of soil N with elevation is involved in tree line formation, it should occur in two alternative ways: (i) through sink limitations because N is required for tissue formation, which would indirectly limit C investments (N decreases and C reserves increase with elevation), and (ii) through C limitations because this would lead directly to a reduction of photoassimilates (N and C reserves decrease with elevation). In testing our hypothesis, we analysed tree growth rates (basal area increment), twig non-structural carbohydrate (NSC) and N concentrations, leaf N, phosphorus (P), N:P ratio concentrations, and soil nutrient levels (NO3−, NH4+, Olsen–P) in four disparate climate and soil Nothofagus pumilio tree lines spanning 18 degrees of latitude in the southern Andes of Chile. We found a significant decrease in tree growth with elevation. Twig NSC concentrations pooled across locations also decreased significantly with elevation (starch constituted most of the NSC and was highly responsible for the negative trend), although this trend was mostly driven by the northernmost locations. Contrary to soil N availability, leaf N and P concentrations increased significantly with elevation. Twig N concentrations, soil P and leaf N:P ratios did not change with elevation. Synthesis. The elevational decrease in NSC concentrations supports C-source limitation in N. pumilio trees at tree line elevation. In the light of this, we assert that the current global explanation for tree line formation (C-sink-limitation driven by low temperatures) must be revisited. Given that leaf N and P concentrations increased and twig N concentrations did not change with elevation, nutrient limitation is not likely to be involved in the C-limitations and could not therefore be an explanation for tree line formation.
Data from: New host and lineage diversity of avian haemosporidia in the Northern Andes
The northern Andes, with their steep elevational and climate gradients, are home to an exceptional diversity of flora and fauna, particularly rich in avian species that have adapted to divergent ecological conditions. With this diversity comes the opportunity for parasites to exploit a wide breadth of avian hosts. However, little research has focused on examining the patterns of prevalence and lineage diversity of avian parasites in the Andes. Here, we screened a total of 428 birds from 19 species (representing nine families) and identified 133 infections of avian haemosporidia (31%), including lineages of Plasmodium, Haemoproteus, and Leucocytozoon. We document a higher prevalence of haemosporidia at higher elevations and lower temperatures, as well as an overall high diversity of lineages in the northern Andes, including the first sequences of haemosporidians reported in hummingbirds (31 sequences found in 11 species within the family Trochilidae). Double infections were distinguished using PHASE, which enables the separation of distinct parasite lineages. Results suggest that the ecological heterogeneity of the northern Andes that has given rise to a rich diversity of avian hosts may also be particularly conducive to parasite diversification and specialization.
Data from: Ascogrammitis lehnertii (Polypodiaceae): A new and dominant understory-species from a diverse community of grammitid ferns in the Andes of Ecuador
In the scope of pantropical studies aimed at understanding how the diversity of grammitid ferns (Polypodiaceae) has evolved and is maintained, we studied a diverse grammitid community in treeline elfin forests in eight study plots of 400 m2 each at 3200 m on Cerro Toledo, Loja, southern Ecuador. We recorded a total of 7986 individuals of 16 grammitid species. Ascogrammitis lehnertii is here described as a new species. We also recorded Mycopteris leucosticta, a species previously believed to be restricted to the Chocó region of Ecuador. We found that the grammitid species were segregated by habitat into trunk-base and trunk specialists, which suggests that species coexistence in these diverse epiphytic communities is at least partly linked to habitat segregation. Ascogrammitis lehnertii and M. leucosticta were the second and third most abundant species, respectively, and both were mostly trunk-base species. The new species A. lehnertii differs from its congeners by the combination of its relatively broad lamina, (2‐)3‐4 cm wide, fertile leaves bearing 2 mm long reddish setae in and near the sori, and by bearing proliferous roots from which new plants emerge. Phylogenetic analyses of atpß, rbcL, rps4, trnG-trnR, and trnL-trnF DNA molecular sequences, using maximum likelihood, place A. lehnertii as sister to A. cuencana with strong support. Despite previous intensive collection efforts in Loja for the past 30 yr, all but one of the collections of this new species were made in the last three years. The discovery of A. lehnertii and the new record of M. leucosticta highlight the patchy distribution of some species in the Andes and the value of surveying habitats that potentially host unrecognized plant diversity. In order to facilitate further discovery, we provide a key to all species of Ascogrammitis.
Data from: Out of the Andes: patterns of diversification in clearwing butterflies
Global biodiversity peaks in the tropical forests of the Andes, a striking geological feature that has likely been instrumental in generating biodiversity by providing opportunities for both vicariant and ecological speciation. However, the role of these mountains in the diversification of insects, which dominate biodiversity, has been poorly explored using phylogenetic methods. Here we study the role of the Andes in the evolution of a diverse Neotropical insect group, the clearwing butterflies. We used dated species-level phylogenies to investigate the time-course of speciation and to infer ancestral elevation ranges for two diverse genera. We show that both genera likely originated at middle elevations in the Andes in the Middle Miocene, contrasting with most published results in vertebrates that point to a lowland origin. Although we detected a signature of vicariance caused by the uplift of the Andes at the Miocene-Pliocene boundary, most sister species were parapatric without any obvious vicariant barrier. Combined with an overall decelerating speciation rate, these results suggest an important role for ecological speciation and adaptive radiation, rather than simple vicariance.
Data from: Puma predation subsidizes an obligate scavenger in the high Andes
The ungulate–carnivore–vulture complex is a key trophic module of many terrestrial ecosystems, but one that is globally under threat. Few have explored cross-species dependencies in this module, and the degree to which vultures rely on trophic facilitation by apex carnivores is rarely known and almost never quantified. We investigated the importance of puma Puma concolor predation on its native camelid prey, vicuñas Vicugna vicugna and guanacos Lama guanicoe, in food provisioning for Andean condors Vultur gryphus in the high Andes of north-western Argentina. We evaluated the origin of wild food sources through carcass surveys. We quantified condor feeding habits via foraging observations and through the analysis of pellet contents and stable isotopes from moulted feathers. Of the 102 fresh camelid carcasses we monitored nearly all (94%) resulted from puma predation, and the majority (85%) of camelid carcasses used by condors were killed by pumas. Camelids represented 88% of the prey items identified from 183 condor pellets, and isotopic analyses of moulted feathers from 86 individuals identified via multilocus genotyping revealed that camelids and livestock were the most important prey items, representing 45–58% and 23–38% of condor assimilated biomass, respectively. Synthesis and applications. Our results show that puma predation plays a key role in the foraging ecology of Andean condors, and highlight the importance of predatory processes that make carrion available to scavengers. We contend that targeting the conservation of ungulate–carnivore–vulture modules, rather than a species-specific approach, will be a more effective strategy to ensure the long-term persistence of Andean condors and other obligate scavengers.
Data from: DNA barcoding survey of anurans across the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia and the impact of the Andes on cryptic diversity
Colombia hosts the second highest amphibian species diversity on Earth, yet its fauna remains poorly studied, especially using molecular genetic techniques. We present the results of the first wide-scale DNA barcoding survey of anurans of Colombia, focusing on a transect across the Eastern Cordillera. We surveyed 10 sites between the Magdalena Valley to the west and the eastern foothills of the Eastern Cordillera, sequencing portions of the mitochondrial 16S ribosomal RNA and cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (CO1) genes for 235 individuals from 52 nominal species. We applied two barcode algorithms, Automatic Barcode Gap Discovery and Refined Single Linkage Analysis, to estimate the number of clusters or "unconfirmed candidate species" supported by DNA barcode data. Our survey included ~7% of the anuran species known from Colombia. While barcoding algorithms differed slightly in the number of clusters identified, between three and ten nominal species may be obscuring candidate species (in some cases, more than one cryptic species per nominal species). Our data suggest that the high elevations of the Eastern Cordillera and the low elevations of the Chicamocha canyon acted as geographic barriers in at least seven nominal species, promoting strong genetic divergences between populations associated with the Eastern Cordillera.
Data from: Pennellia yalaensis (Brassicaceae: Halimolobeae), a new species from the Andes of Northern Argentina
Pennellia yalaensis, a new species of Brassicaceae from Jujuy Province in Argentina, is described and illustrated, and its phylogenetic relationships with nearest relatives are discussed. This novelty is morphologically related to P. boliviensis and P. brachycarpa, which also grow in Central Andes of Argentina. However, P. yalaensis clearly differs from both species by the plant height, inflorescence type, and petal length. In addition, trichomes of the basal leaves distinguish the new species from P. boliviensis, and fruit length and number of ovules/seed from P. brachycarpa. Phylogenetic analyses, based on DNA sequences of nuclear ITS and plastid trnL-F regions, confirmed these affinities.
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Allen Brain Atlas
Allen Brain Atlas is an Allen Institute collection of brain map atlases, datasets, APIs, and analysis tools covering mouse, human, and non-human primate brain resources.
Annotated Behaviour and Observability Dataset (ABODe)
ABODe is a University of Edinburgh DataShare dataset for behavior classification in group-housed mice using home-cage video, identities, bounding boxes, ground-plate positions, and annotator labels.
DANDI Archive for NWB datasets
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