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Fig. 5 H. itoi, nauplius 3 in Naupliar development of Facetotecta (Crustacea: Thecostraca) and the nature of the first nauplius instar in the Crustacea - pro et contra the Hexanauplia concept

Fig. 5 H. itoi, nauplius 3, dorsal and lateral sides (SEM) a General view, dorsal side. b Anterior half of head shield, dorsal view (setae in pores indicated by arrowheads, pores without setae indicated by asterisks). c Central area of head shield around 'window plate' (W), dorsal view (setae in pores indicated by arrowheads, pores without setae indicated by asterisks). d Posterior part of head shield, dorsal view. e Anterior part, lateral view (pores without setae indicated by asterisks). f Posterior part, lateral view (pore without setae indicated by asterisks). g Area around papilla of dorsocaudal organ, dorsal side. Abbreviations: dco - papilla of dorsocaudal organ; dcs - dorsocaudal spine; fs - furcal spines. Scale bars in μm

Fig. 4 H. itoi, nauplius 2 in Naupliar development of Facetotecta (Crustacea: Thecostraca) and the nature of the first nauplius instar in the Crustacea - pro et contra the Hexanauplia concept

Fig. 4 H. itoi, nauplius 2, ventral side (SEM) a General view. b Labrum, terminal papilla of labrum in lower right angle in rectangular area (pores of labrum indicated by asterisks). c Right naupliar limbs, segments of exopods numbered in Arabic, segments of endopods numbered in Roman. d Anteriormost end (pore indicated by asterisk). e Central area with labrum and naupliar limbs (pore indicated by asterisk, segments of endopods numbered in Roman). f Posteriormost end, posterioventral view (pores indicated be asterisks). g Pore on ventrlolateral cuticular ridge (vlr3) in posterior part (indicated by asterisk). Abbreviations: a1 - antennules; a2 - antennae; an - anus; ba - basis; bm - boundary of moult of faciotrunk; co - coxa; dcs - dorsocaudal spine; ff? - putative rudiments of frontal filaments; fs - furcal spines; lb - labrum; md - mandible; rmx1 - rudiments of maxillules; vlr – ventrolateral cuticular ridges; vmr – ventromedial cuticular ridges. Scale bars in μm

Fig. 3 H. itoi, nauplius 2 in Naupliar development of Facetotecta (Crustacea: Thecostraca) and the nature of the first nauplius instar in the Crustacea - pro et contra the Hexanauplia concept

Fig. 3 H. itoi, nauplius 2, dorsal side (SEM) a Just moulted, young nauplius with remnants of cuticle of nauplius 1 at posterior end, cuticular plates compressed, anterior end round; bent anteriormost end in upper right. b Mature nauplius with stretched cuticular plates, anterior end elongated. c Mature nauplius, dorsolateral view, pore without setae indicated by asterisks. d Central area of head shield around 'window plate' (W), setae in pores indicated by arrowheads, pores without setae indicated by asterisks. E Papilla of dorsocaudal organ. Abbreviations: bm - boundary of moult between head shield and faciotrunk; dco - papilla of dorsocaudal organ; dcs - dorsocaudal spine; n1-ev - shedding cuticle (exuvium) of nauplius 1. Scale bars in μm

Fig. 2 H. itoi, nauplius 1 in Naupliar development of Facetotecta (Crustacea: Thecostraca) and the nature of the first nauplius instar in the Crustacea - pro et contra the Hexanauplia concept

Fig. 2 H. itoi, nauplius 1, ventral side (SEM) a General view (cuticular folder with putative rudiments of frontal filaments from 'C' in rectangle area). b Labrum. c Putative rudiments of frontal filaments. d Right naupliar limbs, segments of exopods numbered in Arabic, segments of endopods numbered in Roman. e Posterior part, 5 transverse cuticular rows or combs of denticles corresponding to ventral cuticular ridges of hindbody in subsequent instars indicated by arrowheads. Abbreviations: a1 - antennules; a2 - antennae; ba - basis; co - coxa; dcs - dorsocaudal spine; ff? - putative rudiments of frontal filaments; fs - furcal spines; hb - hindbody; lb - labrum; md - mandible. Scale bars in μm

Fig. 13 Nauplii 1 in Naupliar development of Facetotecta (Crustacea: Thecostraca) and the nature of the first nauplius instar in the Crustacea - pro et contra the Hexanauplia concept

Fig. 13 Nauplii 1 of Ascothoracida (Sessilogoga captiva Kolbasov et al. 2020 from Taiwan) - a, b and Cirripedia (Balanus balanus (Linnaeus 1758) from the White Sea) - c-f; note absence of frontal filaments and vestiges of maxillules; smooth cuticle without developed sculpture and long setae; smooth labrum without pores and setae; limbs without distinct segmentation; half-formed feeding armament of limbs bearing shorter swimming setae and gnathobases; and short furcal and dorsocaudal spines a Ventral side of moulting nauplius 1, shedding cuticle (n1-ev) peeled away to reveal frontal filaments (ff) of second instar. b Lateral side, anterior cuticle of dorsal shield (n1-ev) peeled away to reveal wrinkled cuticle of second instar. c Dorsal side, note frontolateral horns pressed to the side. d Ventrolateral view from posterior end, note undeveloped gnathobases and small, slit- shaped mouth (mo). e Anterior side, note absence of frontal filaments. f Anterioventral view, shedding cuticle (n1-ev) peeled away to reveal frontal filaments (ff) of second instar. Abbreviations: a1 - antennule; a2 - antenna; dcs - dorsocaudal spine; ff - frontal filaments; fh - frontolateral horns; fs - furcal spines; lb - labrum; md - mandible; mo - mouth; n1-ev - shedding cuticle (exuvium) of nauplius 1. Scale bars in μm

Fig. 7 H. itoi, nauplius 4 in Naupliar development of Facetotecta (Crustacea: Thecostraca) and the nature of the first nauplius instar in the Crustacea - pro et contra the Hexanauplia concept

Fig. 7 H. itoi, nauplius 4, dorsal side (SEM). a General view. b Head shield (setae in pores indicated by arrowheads, pores without setae indicated by asterisks). Abbreviations: dco - papilla of dorsocaudal organ; dcs - dorsocaudal spine. Scale bars in μm

Fig. 10 H. itoi, nauplius 6 in Naupliar development of Facetotecta (Crustacea: Thecostraca) and the nature of the first nauplius instar in the Crustacea - pro et contra the Hexanauplia concept

Fig. 10 H. itoi, nauplius 6, dorsal side (SEM) a General view. b Anterior part of head shield (setae in pores indicated by arrowheads, pores without setae indicated by asterisks). c Posterior part of head shield, left side (setae in pores indicated by arrowheads, pores without setae indicated by asterisks). d Posterior part of faciotrunk. Abbreviations: bm - boundary of moult of faciotrunk; dco - papilla of dorsocaudal organ; dcs - dorsocaudal spine. Scale bars in μm

Fig. 9 in Skeleton in the closet: hidden diversity in patterns of cranial and postcranial ontogeny in Neotropical direct-developing frogs (Anura: Brachycephaloidea)

Fig. 9 Schematic representation of auto- and zeugopodium development in Haddadus binotatus. a Forelimb. b Hind limb. The adult configuration is shown at the left, and drawings at the right show the sequential ossification (black segments) of elements. Abbreviations: fi, fibulare; mc, metacarpalia; mt, metatarsalia; p, phalanges; ph, prehallux; pp, prepollex; r, radius; ra, radiale; ti, tibiale; u, ulna; ul, ulnare; Y, element Y; 1–5, distal carpalia and tarsalia; I–V, fingers and toes

Fig. 13 in Skeleton in the closet: hidden diversity in patterns of cranial and postcranial ontogeny in Neotropical direct-developing frogs (Anura: Brachycephaloidea)

Fig. 13 Cranial and postcranial skeleton of Brachycephalus ephippium at late prehatching stages. a Embryo at TS13, showing a cross section of the lower jaw with ossified squamosals and angulosplenials investing the palatoquadrate and Meckel's cartilage. b Embryo at TS15, showing a cross section through the otic capsule, showing the still slight ossification, and cleared and stained chondrocranium (anterolateral view) and left hand (dorsal view). Histological sections are colored with

Fig. 12 in Skeleton in the closet: hidden diversity in patterns of cranial and postcranial ontogeny in Neotropical direct-developing frogs (Anura: Brachycephaloidea)

Fig. 12 Postcranial skeleton of Ischnocnema henselii at hatching. a Vertebral column and pelvic girdle, dorsal view. b Pectoral girdle, ventral view. c Forelimb, dorsal view. d Hind limb, dorsal view. The inset shows detail of the medial region of articulated pectoral girdle,

Fig. 6 in Skeleton in the closet: hidden diversity in patterns of cranial and postcranial ontogeny in Neotropical direct-developing frogs (Anura: Brachycephaloidea)

Fig. 6 Skeletal morphology of Haddadus binotatus at TS12. a Skull in dorsal, ventral, and lateral views. b Hyobranchial apparatus, ventral view. Inset: detail of the suspensorium region, showing the arrangement of the palatoquadrate and ossifications developed. c Vertebral column, dorsal view. d Pectoral girdle, ventral view. e Pelvic girdle, lateral view. f Forelimb, dorsal view. g Hind limb, dorsal view. Abbreviations: as,

Fig. 2 in Skeleton in the closet: hidden diversity in patterns of cranial and postcranial ontogeny in Neotropical direct-developing frogs (Anura: Brachycephaloidea)

Fig. 2 Development of the nasal region of Oreobates barituensis. a TS14, anteroventral view of the snout. b Hatchling, frontal view of the snout. c Hatchling, serial sections of the nasal region; hematoxylin–eosin staining; nonconsecutive images were selected in order to show main nasal structures, from front (first, left image) to caudal region (last image).

Fig. 1 in Skeleton in the closet: hidden diversity in patterns of cranial and postcranial ontogeny in Neotropical direct-developing frogs (Anura: Brachycephaloidea)

Fig. 1 Skeletal morphology of Oreobates barituensis at TS12. a Skull dorsal, ventral, and lateral views. b Hyobranchial apparatus, ventral view. Inset: detail of the palatoquadrate cartilage with a long pterygoid process. c Vertebral column, dorsal view. d Pectoral girdle, ventral view. e Pelvic girdle, lateral view. f Forelimb, dorsal view. g Hind limb, dorsal view. Abbreviations: c, coracoid; ec, epicoracoid; fi, fibulare; h, hyale; hp, hypobranchial plate; hu, humerus; il, ilium; ipc, inferior prenasal

Fig. 11 in How to build a larval body with less than a hundred cells? Insights from the early development of a stalked jellyfish (Staurozoa, Cnidaria)

Fig. 11 Schematic drawing depicting rearrangement and reshaping of endoderm cells during AP axis development seen from two mutually perpendicular planes. Upper row (a–f) represents a cut along the AP axis; lower row (a′–f′) represents a cut perpendicular to the AP axis. Ectoderm is green, endoderm cells are purple. After gastrulation (a, a′), endoderm cells acquire a two-row organization by getting polarized perpendicular to the AP axis (b, b′, c, c′). Later on, the opposite cells intercalate between each other (d, d′) resulting in the elongation and curling of the endodermal core (e, e′), which finally forces the whole body of the larva to elongate (f, f′). At this stage, all endoderm cells are lined up in a single cell row (f, f′)

Fig. 10 in How to build a larval body with less than a hundred cells? Insights from the early development of a stalked jellyfish (Staurozoa, Cnidaria)

Fig. 10 Schematic representation of embryonic and larval development of Lucernaria. Blastomeres are yellow, ectoderm cells are green (cnidoblasts are cyan) and endoderm cells are purple. Cell number is indicated in blue font. (a–c) Cleavage. (d) Stereoblastula. (e, f, g) Early, mid-, and late gastrulae, respectively. (h, i) Beginning of morphological differentiation of the AP body axis: the endoderm cells elongate perpendicular to the future AP axis. (j) Beginning of intercalation of

Fig. 8 in How to build a larval body with less than a hundred cells? Insights from the early development of a stalked jellyfish (Staurozoa, Cnidaria)

Fig. 8 Hatchling stage. Cell cortices and myonemes are labeled with phallacidin (green), nuclei are labeled with DAPI (blue), cilia and cnidoblasts are labeled with anti-tubulin antibodies (red) on the CLSM image (b). Ectoderm cells are artificially colored in green (cnidoblasts are cyan) and endoderm cells are artificially colored in purple on the TEM images (a, c–e). The pole of the hatchlings with cnidoblasts is oriented to the right. (a, b) Longitudinal sections through the body axis. The endoderm rod straightens, endoderm cells are coin-shaped, and ectoderm cells are of irregular shape. Sparse сilia are observed for the first time at this

Fig. 8 in Skeleton in the closet: hidden diversity in patterns of cranial and postcranial ontogeny in Neotropical direct-developing frogs (Anura: Brachycephaloidea)

Fig. 8 Postcranial skeleton of Haddadus binotatus at TS15. a Vertebral column, dorsal view. b Pectoral girdle, ventral view. c Pelvic girdle, lateral view. d Forelimb, dorsal view. e Hind limb, dorsal view. Abbreviations: c, coracoid; cl, clavicle; ct, cleithrum; fi, fibulare; il,

Fig. 12 in How to build a larval body with less than a hundred cells? Insights from the early development of a stalked jellyfish (Staurozoa, Cnidaria)

Fig. 12 The set of developmental pathways available for medusozoan cnidarians. Blastomeres are yellow, ectoderm cells are green, and endoderm cells are purple. (a–e) Developmental trajectory of Lucernaria. (a) Cleavage, (b) stereoblastula, (c) gastrulation by ingression of just a few cells, (d) gastrula, (e) planula. (f, g and h– k) Developmental trajectories of other medusozoan cnidarians leading to development of multicellular planula (k). (f) Gastrulation by primary (cellular) delamination followed by proliferation of both ectoderm and endoderm cells (g). (h) Blastula containing multiple cells and having the blastocoel (coeloblastula). (i) Gastrulation by ingression of multiple cells. (j) Gastrulation by invagination

Fig. 6 in How to build a larval body with less than a hundred cells? Insights from the early development of a stalked jellyfish (Staurozoa, Cnidaria)

Fig. 6 Morphological differentiation of the primary body axis: development of the endoderm rod. Cell cortices are labeled with phallacidin (green) and nuclei are labeled with DAPI (blue) on the CLSM images (a, a1–a4). Ectoderm cells are artificially colored in green (round cells are in cyan) and endoderm cells are artificially colored in purple on the TEM images (b, c). Future poles of AP body axis are marked with asterisks. (a) 3D reconstruction of a spherical embryo. (a1–a4) Planes of the longitudinal optical sections. (a1) Section of the embryo in the plane of the endoderm rod bending: the endoderm rod of the spherical embryo has a V shape. (a2–a4) Optical sections through the embryo in the planes perpendicular to the axis of the rod bending, which

Fig. 5 in How to build a larval body with less than a hundred cells? Insights from the early development of a stalked jellyfish (Staurozoa, Cnidaria)

Fig. 5 Morphological differentiation of the AP body axis: beginning of endoderm cell reshaping. CLSM of phallacidin staining (a, b, f, g) and TEM (c–e, h–j). Ectoderm cells are artificially colored in green (rounded basiepithelial cells are in cyan) and endoderm cell are artificially colored in purple on the TEM images. (a–e) Primary elongation of endoderm cells. (a) Very beginning of the axis development: some endoderm cells start elongating. (b) Embryos at a bit later stage: longitudinal section (left) and cross section (right). Endoderm cells are elongated perpendicular to the body axis. As they are packed in two rows, only two or three cells (asterisks) are visible on a cross section. Rounded cells lacking the contact with the embryo surface appear in the ectoderm. (c) An embryo at the same stage as on (b), longitudinal section. Purple arrows show the direction of elongation of the endoderm cells. Note plenty of vacuoles in their cytoplasm. (d) The endoderm core with characteristic pairwise arrangement of cells. (e) Ultrastructure of an endoderm cell. A purple double-