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FIG. 21. Cis-Andean foothills. A. Yellow area delimits the distribution pattern. B in The Fishes Of The Amazon: Distribution And Biogeographical Patterns, With A Comprehensive List Of Species

FIG. 21. Cis-Andean foothills. A. Yellow area delimits the distribution pattern. B. Astyanacinus spp. (data from Dagosta, 2011). C. Leporinus striatus (data from Birindelli and Britski, 2013). D. Steindachnerina dobula (data from Vari, 1991).

FIG. 7. Amazon and Orinoco Lowlands. A. Yellow area delimits the distribution pattern. B in The Fishes Of The Amazon: Distribution And Biogeographical Patterns, With A Comprehensive List Of Species

FIG. 7. Amazon and Orinoco Lowlands. A. Yellow area delimits the distribution pattern. B. Moenkhausia lepidura (data from Marinho and Langeani, 2016). C. Potamorhina altamazonica (data from Vari, 1984). D. Vandellia cirrhosa (M.P., unpublished data).

FIG. 13. Guiana Mangrove Province. A. Yellow area delimits the distribution pattern. B in The Fishes Of The Amazon: Distribution And Biogeographical Patterns, With A Comprehensive List Of Species

FIG. 13. Guiana Mangrove Province. A. Yellow area delimits the distribution pattern. B. Curimata cyprinoides (data from Vari, 1989a). C. Cyphocharax helleri (data from Vari, 1992b) with additional records from MZUSP). D. Polycentrus schomburgkii (see data from Coutinho and Wosiacki, 2014).

FIG. 18. Longitudinal correspondence among Amazonian Shield versants. A in The Fishes Of The Amazon: Distribution And Biogeographical Patterns, With A Comprehensive List Of Species

FIG. 18. Longitudinal correspondence among Amazonian Shield versants. A. Red area delimits the distribution pattern of western basins (Trombetas and Tapajós); yellow area the western basins pattern (Jari, Xingu, and Tocantins). B. Sartor gr. elongatus (records from MZUSP). C. Bryconexodon spp. (records from MZUSP). D. Bivibranchia velox (records from MZUSP).

FIG. 6. Amazon Core. A. Yellow area delimits the distribution pattern. B in The Fishes Of The Amazon: Distribution And Biogeographical Patterns, With A Comprehensive List Of Species

FIG. 6. Amazon Core. A. Yellow area delimits the distribution pattern. B. Boullengerella spp. (data from Vari (1995) with additional records from MZUSP). C. Moenkhausia collettii (records from MZUSP). D. Moenkhausia oligolepis (records from MZUSP).

FIG. 17 in The Fishes Of The Amazon: Distribution And Biogeographical Patterns, With A Comprehensive List Of Species

FIG. 17. Guiana Shield (Atlantic and Amazonian versants). A. Yellow area delimits the distribution pattern. B. Pseudancistrus brevispinis (data fom Cardoso and Montoya-Burgos, 2009).

FIG. 14. Eastern Amazon. A in The Fishes Of The Amazon: Distribution And Biogeographical Patterns, With A Comprehensive List Of Species

FIG. 14. Eastern Amazon. A. Yellow area delimits the distribution pattern (wavy line represents position of Purus Arch). B. Aphanothorolus emarginatus (data from Ray and Armbruster, 2016). C. Pachyurus junki (records from MZUSP). D. Synaptolaemus latofasciatus (data from Britski et al., 2011).

Figure 25. Tree number 90 in Phylogeny of cardiid bivalves (cockles and giant clams): revision of the Cardiinae and the importance of fossils in explaining disjunct biogeographical distributions

Figure 25. Tree number 90 of 208 most parsimonious trees from ordered analysis. Synapomorphies for each numbered node indicated in Table 5.

Figure 24. Majority-rule consensus trees. A in Phylogeny of cardiid bivalves (cockles and giant clams): revision of the Cardiinae and the importance of fossils in explaining disjunct biogeographical distributions

Figure 24. Majority-rule consensus trees. A, Majority-rule of 16 941 trees from unordered analysis. B, Majority-rule of 208 most parsimonious trees resulting from ordering one character, shell shape. Number in plain typeface indicates percentage of most parsimonious trees which support node. Number in italics (if present) indicates bootstrap support for each node. Number in boldface (if present) indicates Bremer index for each node.

Figure 20 in Phylogeny of cardiid bivalves (cockles and giant clams): revision of the Cardiinae and the importance of fossils in explaining disjunct biogeographical distributions

Figure 20. Spines of Afrocardium exochum (ANSP 293709). A, radial section through central portion of a rib to illustrate shell microstructure. Direction of ventral margin to left, direction of umbo to right. B, SEM of detail of exterior of right valve. Note alternation of one wider rib covered with larger triangular spines with one narrower rib covered with smaller triangular spines. C, SEM of dorsal view of right valve. Again, note alternating rib width and spine strength. Scale bars: A = 0.1 mm; B, C = 0.2 mm.

Figure 22 in Phylogeny of cardiid bivalves (cockles and giant clams): revision of the Cardiinae and the importance of fossils in explaining disjunct biogeographical distributions

Figure 22. Right valve of Freneixicardia verrucosa, A, AMNH 3094/2. Scanning electron stereomicrographs of cardinal area of hinge. ac shape 0, pc shape 0. B, NHM L7962, internal view. C, NHM L7962, posterior slope. Arrows indicate sets of heavily imbricated spines. D, NHM L7962. Dorsal view. Scale bars: A = 2 mm; B−D = 5 mm.

Figure 27 in Phylogeny of cardiid bivalves (cockles and giant clams): revision of the Cardiinae and the importance of fossils in explaining disjunct biogeographical distributions

Figure 27. Hedecardium (Iheringicardium). A, ventral margin of right valve of H. (I) patagonicum (NHM PI TB4). White arrows indicate interspaces in which secondary radial threads are visible. Black arrows indicate primary radial threads on top of ribs. Scale bar = 10 mm. B, ventral margin of left valve of H. (I) philippii (NHM PI TB1). Arrow points to doubled rib. Scale in mm indicated on figure. C, external view of left valve of H. (I) ameghinoi (NHM L12549), hedeform shell shape. Arrows point to doubled ribs. Scale bar = 10 mm. D, closeup of ventral margin of same specimen as in C. Arrow points to

Figure 18. A−D in Phylogeny of cardiid bivalves (cockles and giant clams): revision of the Cardiinae and the importance of fossils in explaining disjunct biogeographical distributions

Figure 18. A−D, posterior views of paired valves. A, Cardium costatum (UMMZ 30845). B, Bucardium ringens (UMMZ 24727). C, Dinocardium robustum (UMMZ 265445). D, Planicardium virginianum (UNC 11856). E, Schedocardia hatchetigbeense (ANSP 8756), oblique posteror view of right valve. F, Schedocardia hatchetigbeense (ANSP 8756), anterior slope. Scale bars: A,C−E = 10 mm; B = 5 mm.

Figure 17 in Phylogeny of cardiid bivalves (cockles and giant clams): revision of the Cardiinae and the importance of fossils in explaining disjunct biogeographical distributions

Figure 17. External views of ventral margins of right valves. Arrows point to notches on posterodorsal portion of spines. A, Vepricardium multispinosum (ANSP 54220). Scale bar = 5 mm. B, Acanthocardia (Acanthocardia) aculeata (ANSP 54235). Scale bar = 10 mm.

Figure 29 in Phylogeny of cardiid bivalves (cockles and giant clams): revision of the Cardiinae and the importance of fossils in explaining disjunct biogeographical distributions

Figure 29. Right valve of Freneixicardia hausmanni. A, AMNH 977/1. Scanning electron stereomicrograph of cardinal area of hinge. B, NHM PI TB9, internal view. C, NHM PI TB9, oblique posterior view. D, NHM PI TB9, external view. Note alternating narrow and wide ribs on central part of shell (also see Fig. 10D). Scale bars: A = 2 mm; B−D = 5 mm.

Figure 15 in Phylogeny of cardiid bivalves (cockles and giant clams): revision of the Cardiinae and the importance of fossils in explaining disjunct biogeographical distributions

Figure 15. Stereophotos of hinges of right valves. A, Afrocardium exochum (ANSP 293709): ac shape 0, pc shape 0. B, Hedecardium (Iheringicardium) ameghinoi (NHM L12529): ac shape 0, pc shape 0. C, Europicardium multicostatum (PI TB5): ac shape 2, pc shape 0. Scale bars: A = 0.5 mm; B, C = 5 mm.

Figure 14 in Phylogeny of cardiid bivalves (cockles and giant clams): revision of the Cardiinae and the importance of fossils in explaining disjunct biogeographical distributions

Figure 14. Hinges of right valves. A, Agnocardia spinosifrons (USGS 26439): ac shape 1, pc shape 0. B, Planicardium virginianum (USNM 2831): ac shape 7, pc shape 2. C, Hedecardium (Hedecardium) waitakiense (DSIRGS 10837): ac shape 0, pc shape 0. Scale bars: A = 5 mm; B, C = 10 mm.

Figure 16 in Phylogeny of cardiid bivalves (cockles and giant clams): revision of the Cardiinae and the importance of fossils in explaining disjunct biogeographical distributions

Figure 16. Stereophotos of hinges of right valves. A, Nemocardium bechei (ANSP 252661): ac shape 0, pc shape 0. B, Schedocardia hatchetigbeense (ANSP 8756): ac shape 0, pc shape 0. C, Plagiocardium granulosum (ANSP 6268): ac shape 8, pc shape 3. D, Orthocardium porulosum (ANSP 6266): ac shape 0, pc shape 0. Scale bars: A, B, D = 10 mm; C= 2 mm.

Figure 23 in Phylogeny of cardiid bivalves (cockles and giant clams): revision of the Cardiinae and the importance of fossils in explaining disjunct biogeographical distributions

Figure 23. External view of left valves. A, adult of Loxocardium obliquum (FMNH PE3642). B, juvenile of Europicardium multicostatum (NHM PI TB6). Note loxofrom shell shape of A and B. C, adult of Europicardium multicostatum (NHM L8760), europiform shell shape. All scale bars = 1 mm.

Figure 13 in Phylogeny of cardiid bivalves (cockles and giant clams): revision of the Cardiinae and the importance of fossils in explaining disjunct biogeographical distributions

Figure 13. Stereophotos of cardinal areas of hinges of right valves. A, Vepricardium multispinosum (ANSP 54220): ac shape 3, pc shape 0. B, Dinocardium robustum (FMNH 278011): ac shape 0, pc shape 0. C, Chesacardium laqueatum (FMNH UC7082): ac shape 7, pc shape 0. All scale bars = 10 mm.