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FIGURE 15 in New insights on the systematics and reproductive behaviour in tree frogs of the genus Feihyla, with description of a new related genus from Asia (Anura, Rhacophoridae)

FIGURE 15. Holotypes of Rohanixalus baladika and R. nauli. A–J. Rohanixalus baladika, MZB Amph. 17.935: A. dorsal view; B. ventral view; C. lateral view of head; D. ventral view of hand; E. ventral view of foot; F. schematic illustration of webbing on foot; G–L. Rohanixalus nauli, MZB.Amph. 14316: G. dorsal view; H. ventral view; I. lateral view of head; J. ventral view of hand; K. ventral view of foot; L. schematic illustration of webbing on foot.

FIGURE 14 in New insights on the systematics and reproductive behaviour in tree frogs of the genus Feihyla, with description of a new related genus from Asia (Anura, Rhacophoridae)

FIGURE 14. Variations in dorsal markings and dorsolateral lines in Rohanixalus baladika. A. MZB Amph. 17.938 (paratype); B. MZB Amph. 17.939 (paratype); C. MZB Amph. 17.936 (paratype); D. MZB Amph. 18684; E. MZB Amph. 15409; F. MZB Amph. 16661; G. MZB Amph. 15655.

FIGURE 13 in New insights on the systematics and reproductive behaviour in tree frogs of the genus Feihyla, with description of a new related genus from Asia (Anura, Rhacophoridae)

FIGURE 13. Tadpole of Rohanixalus vittatus from Andaman Islands, India. A–D. Gosner stage 35 larva: A. Lateral view, in life; B. lateral view, in preservation; C. dorsal view, in preservation; and D. ventral view, in preservation; E–G. Oral apparatus indicating variation in the tooth rows, keratinized jaw sheaths, and marginal and submarginal papillae at three different Gosner stages: E. Stage 25; F. Stage 30; G. Stage 35. AL: anterior labium; A-1 and A-2: first and second anterior tooth rows; PL: posterior labium; P-1, P-2, and P-3: first, second, and third posterior tooth rows; UJ: upper jaw sheath; LJ: lower jaw sheath; MP: marginal papillae; SP: submarginal papillae.

FIGURE 12 in New insights on the systematics and reproductive behaviour in tree frogs of the genus Feihyla, with description of a new related genus from Asia (Anura, Rhacophoridae)

FIGURE 12. Male-male combats observed in Rohanixalus vittatus at Andaman Islands, India. A–C. Males presumably fighting over perching positions; D. multiple males mating with a single female.

FIGURE 11 in New insights on the systematics and reproductive behaviour in tree frogs of the genus Feihyla, with description of a new related genus from Asia (Anura, Rhacophoridae)

FIGURE 11. Maternal egg-attending behaviour observed in Rohanixalus vittatus at Andaman Islands, India. A. A portion of banana leaf with seven egg clutches at different developmental stages (freshly-laid to stage 24) being attended by females; B. female attending a one-day egg clutch; C. female attending a developing egg clutch with stage 22 larvae; D. female attending a developing egg clutch with stage 23 larvae; E–H. attendance of egg clutches at different developmental stages by multiple females.

FIGURE 9 in New insights on the systematics and reproductive behaviour in tree frogs of the genus Feihyla, with description of a new related genus from Asia (Anura, Rhacophoridae)

FIGURE 9. Male advertisement calls and reproductive behaviour in Rohanixalus vittatus from Andaman Islands, India. A–D. Male advertisement calls: A. oscillogram for 10 s call segment; B. oscillogram for 1 s call segment; C. oscillogram for 0.1 s call segment; D. spectrogram for 0.1 s call segment; E–I. sequence of reproductive behaviour: E. male and female in axillary amplexus; F. lateral view of the amplected pair at the time of oviposition, with female depositing light green eggs in jelly-nest; G. dorsal view of the amplected pair at the time of oviposition, with female clasping the egg clutch with her hind feet; H. male dismounts while the female remains motionless with her hind legs stretched over the egg clutch; I. male departs while the female continues to sit over the eggs, produces a gelatinous secretion from cloaca, and glazes it over the entire egg clutch by extending both her hind feet in a circular motion.

FIGURE 10 in New insights on the systematics and reproductive behaviour in tree frogs of the genus Feihyla, with description of a new related genus from Asia (Anura, Rhacophoridae)

FIGURE 10. Freshly-laid egg clutch and embryonic development observed in the wild in Rohanixalus vittatus at Andamans Islands, India. A. The first bout of eggs released from the cloaca of female, about one minute after the initiation of oviposition; B. freshly-laid egg clutch after the completion of oviposition and glazing of the viscous secretion by female; C. differentiation of the tail and eyes (stage 21) on day three; D. further differentiation in stage 22 larvae on day four; E. embryos with dark pigmentation and developed eyes and tail (stage 23), showing movement inside the jelly-nest on day five; F. stage 24 larvae with reduced egg yolk, ready to hatch after six days; G. young hatchlings (stage 24) before dropping out from the jelly-nest on day six.

FIGURE 8. A–I in New insights on the systematics and reproductive behaviour in tree frogs of the genus Feihyla, with description of a new related genus from Asia (Anura, Rhacophoridae)

FIGURE 8. A–I. Rohanixalus vittatus (male, SDBDU 2019.4048) in life, from Andaman Islands, India: A. dorsolateral view; B. dorsal view; C. ventral view; D. posterior view of thighs; E. enlarged view of skin over the tympanic region showing rounded speckles; F. ventral view of hand; G. ventral view of foot; H. schematic illustration of webbing on foot; I. lateral view; J–P. variations in body colour and skin texture in R. vittatus at Andaman Islands, India: J. dorsolateral view (male, SDBDU 2019.4033); K. dorsolateral view showing light green coloured mature ova through translucent skin (female, SDBDU 2019.4051); L. dorsolateral view showing light green coloured mature ova through translucent skin (female, SDBDU 2019.4034); M. dorsal view (male, SDBDU 2019.4037); N. dorsal view (male, 2019.4037); O. ventral view (female, SDBDU 2019.4034); P. ventral view (male, SDBDU 2019.4037); Q. sampling localities of R. vittatus at Middle and North Andamans in the present study.

FIGURE 7 in New insights on the systematics and reproductive behaviour in tree frogs of the genus Feihyla, with description of a new related genus from Asia (Anura, Rhacophoridae)

FIGURE 7. Members of the genus Rohanixalus. A. Dorsolateral view of R. hansenae from the type locality, Nong Khor, Thailand; B. dorsolateral view of R. marginis (holotype) from Perlis State Park chalets, Perlis, Peninsular Malaysia; C. dorsal view of R. cf. nauli, from Batang Gadis National Park, North Sumatra, Indonesia with a jelly-nest; D. dorsolateral view of R. cf. nauli, from Batang Gadis National Park, North Sumatra, Indonesia; E. dorsolateral view of R. cf. nauli, from Bukit Barisan Forest Park, North Sumatra, Indonesia; F. dorsolateral view of R. punctatus (Paratype, JBS 9274) from Gwa, Rakhine State, Myanmar (CC Public domain 3.0; AmphibiaWeb); G. dorsolateral view of R. vittatus from Rangat, Middle Andaman Islands, India; H. dorsolateral view of R. senapatiensis from Manipur, India; I. dorsolateral view of R. shyamrupus from Namdapha, Arunachal Pradesh.

FIGURE 6 in New insights on the systematics and reproductive behaviour in tree frogs of the genus Feihyla, with description of a new related genus from Asia (Anura, Rhacophoridae)

FIGURE 6. Members of the Feihyla vittiger group and their nest structure. A. F. inexpectata in dorsolateral view; B. F. kajau in dorsolateral view; C. eggs of F. kajau; D. early development in F. kajau at approximately stage 19; E. F. vittiger in dorsolateral view; F. an egg clutch of F. vittiger with developing embryos (approximately stage 21); G–M. Feihyla vittiger in life: G–J. dorsolateral view; K. dorsal view; L. posterior view of thighs; M. lateral view.

FIGURE 3 in New insights on the systematics and reproductive behaviour in tree frogs of the genus Feihyla, with description of a new related genus from Asia (Anura, Rhacophoridae)

FIGURE 3. Nest structure and egg clutch morphology in the closely related Asian genera Chirixalus, Feihyla, and Rohanixalus. A. Foam nest in genus Chirixalus: an amplected pair of C. simus on a freshly laid foam nest; B. bubble nest in genus Rohanixalus: R. vittatus female with a freshly laid egg clutch; C. jelly-nest in genus Feihyla: eggs of Feihyla fuhua; D. schematic illustration of egg clutch morphology in genus Rohanixalus; E. schematic illustration of egg clutch morphology in Feihyla palpebralis group (Feihyla sensu stricto); F. schematic illustration of egg clutch morphology in Feihyla vittiger group; G. schematic illustration of egg clutch morphology in genus Chirixalus.

FIGURE 5 in New insights on the systematics and reproductive behaviour in tree frogs of the genus Feihyla, with description of a new related genus from Asia (Anura, Rhacophoridae)

FIGURE 5. Members of the Feihyla palpebralis group and their nest structure. A–E. Feihyla fuhua from Mt. Dawei, Yunnan Province, China. A. Dorsolateral view; B. lateral view (arrow indicating a white streak); C. dorsal view; D. freshly laid eggs in a jelly-nest (arrow indicating pigmented pole); E. developing embryos; F–G. Feihyla palpebralis from the type locality, Langbian Plateau, Lam Dong Province, Vietnam: F. dorsolateral view; G. freshly laid eggs in a jelly-nest (arrow indicating pigmented pole); H–I. Feihyla fuhua from Maguan County, Yunnan Province, China: H. dorsolateral view (arrow indicating a white streak); I. freshly laid eggs in a jelly-nest (arrow indicating pigmented pole).

FIGURE 4 in New insights on the systematics and reproductive behaviour in tree frogs of the genus Feihyla, with description of a new related genus from Asia (Anura, Rhacophoridae)

FIGURE 4. Distribution of genetically confirmed records of all known Feihyla and Rohanixalus members (indicated by circles) and their respective type localities (indicated by triangles). Numbers corresponding to each species are indicated alongside the distribution spots.

FIGURE 2. A–B in New insights on the systematics and reproductive behaviour in tree frogs of the genus Feihyla, with description of a new related genus from Asia (Anura, Rhacophoridae)

FIGURE 2. A–B. DNA Barcoding based on mitochondrial 16S rRNA sequences: A. genus Feihyla; B. genus Rohanixalus gen. nov.; C. distribution of the new genus Rohanixalus. Images represent the corresponding species and their broad geographical ranges.

FIGURE 1. Maximum Likelihood tree showing phylogenetic relationships among 124 in New insights on the systematics and reproductive behaviour in tree frogs of the genus Feihyla, with description of a new related genus from Asia (Anura, Rhacophoridae)

FIGURE 1. Maximum Likelihood tree showing phylogenetic relationships among 124 representative taxa from all recognised genera of the subfamily Rhacophorinae. Relationships are inferred based on 1,937 bp of mitochondrial (12SrRNA, tRNAVAL, 16SrRNA) and nuclear (RHO and RAG1) genes. Numbers above and below the branches indicate Bayesian Posterior Probabilities and RAxML bootstrap support values, respectively.

opencc-zeroDec 2012View details →

Data from: The mating behaviour of the seed shrimp Parapolycope spiralis (Ostracoda: Cladocopina), with insight into the evolution of mating systems in cryptic interstitial habitats

The mating behaviour of the interstitial ostracod Parapolycope spiralis Tanaka & Tsukagoshi, 2010 is reported here for the first time. This species is adapted to an interstitial environment, and is typified by having tiny body size and being completely blind. In this paper it is presumed that the characteristics of the mating behaviour are typical for species in an interstitial environment. Observations by microscopy on mating behaviour in the laboratory showed various distinct stages: (1) the male captures the female by a sucker on the antennula; (2) the male clasps and maintains the mating position using the endopodite, the endopodite claw, and the exopodite of the antenna; (3) the male makes contact using the distal part of the upper lip; and (4) copulation takes place. These observations indicate that the sequence of stages of the mating behaviour of miniaturized animals is not necessarily always a simplified process. During the process, it seems that the male upper lip establishes physical contact stimuli with the female. Because the interstitial environment is cryptic and consists of a three-dimensional space with reduced connectivity, direct physical contact is likely to be one of the most effective and successful courtship behaviours.

opencc-zeroDec 2013View details →

Data from: Effects of feral cats on the evolution of anti-predator behaviours in island reptiles: insights from an ancient introduction

Exotic predators have been the driving force behind the extinction of many island endemic species. We examined impacts of feral cats (Felis catus) on the abundance and anti-predator behaviors of Aegean wall lizards (Podarcis erhardii) in the Cyclades (Greece), where cats were introduced thousands of years ago. We compared populations with high and low cat density on Naxos and populations on surrounding islets with no cats. Results show that cats have strong negative effects on wall lizard populations, and lizards cope with current threat from cats using plastic defenses that likely existed before the ancient introduction. Lizards facing greater risk from cats stayed closer to refugia, and were more likely to shed their tails in a standardized assay. Flight initiation distance from a surveyor or a mounted cat decoy in the lab correlated closely with risk from cats. All populations showed phenotypic plasticity in flight initiation distance suggesting that this plasticity is ancient and could have helped wall lizards survive the initial introduction of cats to the region. Lizards from islets sought shelter less often and often initially approached the cat decoy. These differences reflect a change since the introduction and could render islet lizards strongly susceptible to cat predation.

opencc-zeroDec 2017View details →

Data from: State-space modelling of the flight behaviour of a soaring bird provides new insights to migratory strategies

1. Characterizing the spatiotemporal variation of animal behaviour can elucidate the way individuals interact with their environment and allocate energy. Increasing sophistication of tracking technologies paired with novel analytical approaches allows the characterisation of movement dynamics even when an individual is not directly observable. 2. In this study, high-resolution movement data collected via global positioning system (GPS) tracking in three dimensions were paired with topographical information and used in a Bayesian state-space model to describe the flight modes of migrating golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) in eastern North America. 3. Our model identified five functional behavioural states, two of which were previously undescribed variations on thermal soaring. The other states comprised gliding, perching and orographic soaring. States were discriminated by movement features in the horizontal (step length and turning angle) and vertical (change in altitude) planes, and by the association with ridgelines promoting wind deflection. Tracked eagles spent 2%, 31%, 38%, 9% and 20% of their day time in directed thermal soaring, gliding, convoluted thermal soaring, perching and orographic soaring, respectively. The analysis of the relative occurrence of these flight modes highlighted yearly, seasonal, age, individual and sex differences in flight strategy and performance. Particularly, less energy-efficient orographic soaring was more frequent in autumn, when thermals were less available. Adult birds were also better at optimising energy efficiency than sub-adults. 4. Our approach represents the first example of a state-space model for bird flight mode using altitude data in conjunction with horizontal locations, and is applicable to other flying organisms where similar data are available. The ability to describe animal movements in a three-dimensional habitat is critical to advance our understanding of the functional processes driving animals' decisions.

opencc-zeroDec 2019View details →

Automated detection of lameness in sheep using machine learning approaches: novel insights into behavioural differences among lame and non-lame sheep

Lameness in sheep is the biggest cause of concern regarding poor health and welfare among sheep producing countries. Best practice for lameness relies on rapid treatment, yet there are no objective measures of lameness detection. Use of accelerometers and gyroscopes have been widely used in human activity studies and their use is becoming increasingly common in livestock. In this study, we used 23 datasets (10 non-lame and 13 lame sheep) from an accelerometer and gyroscope-based ear sensor with a sampling frequency of 16 Hz to develop and compare algorithms that can differentiate lameness within three different activities (walking, standing and lying). We show for the first time that features extracted from accelerometer and gyroscope signals can differentiate between lame and non-lame sheep while standing, walking and lying. The random forest algorithm performed best for classifying lameness with accuracy of 84.91% within lying, 81.15% within standing and 76.83% within walking and overall correctly classified over 80% sheep within activities. Both accelerometer and gyroscope-based features ranked among the top 10 features for classification. Our results suggest that novel behavioural differences between lame and non-lame sheep across all three activities could be used to develop an automated system for lameness detection.