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157 results for “color polymorphism”
Data from: Winter coat color polymorphisms identify global hotspots for evolutionary rescue from climate change
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Data from: Camouflage, conspicuousness, and inducible color change in a polymorphic, sexually dichromatic frog
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Data from: Ecological causes and consequences of flower color polymorphism in a self-pollinating plant (Boechera stricta)
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Data from: A ketocarotenoid-based color polymorphism in the Sira poison frog Ranitomeya sirensis indicates novel gene interactions underlying aposematic signal variation
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Exercise training has morph-specific effects on telomere, body condition and growth dynamics in a color-polymorphic lizard
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Data from: An intronic transposon insertion associates with a trans-species color polymorphism in Midas cichlid fishes
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Testing the niche differentiation hypothesis in wild capuchin monkeys with polymorphic color vision
<p>The polymorphic color vision system of most North, Central, and South American monkeys is a textbook case of balancing selection, yet the mechanism behind it is poorly understood. Previous work has established task-specific foraging advantages to different color vision phenotypes: dichromats (red-green colorblind) are more efficient foraging for invertebrates, while trichromats (color "normal" relative to humans) are more efficient foraging for "reddish" ripe fruit, suggesting that niche differentiation may underlie the maintenance of color vision variation. We explore a prediction of the niche differentiation hypothesis by asking whether dichromatic and trichromatic capuchin monkeys (<i>Cebus imitator</i>) diverge in their foraging activity budget, specifically testing whether dichromats forage more frequently for invertebrates and trichromats forage more frequently for "reddish" ripe fruit. To assess this, we analyze a large dataset of behavioral scan samples (n = 21,984) from 48 wild adult female capuchins of known color vision genotype, dominance rank and reproductive status, together with models of food conspicuity. We find no significant differences between dichromats and trichromats in the frequency of scans spent foraging for different food types but do find that nursing females forage less overall than cycling females. Our results suggest that the potential for color vision-based niche differentiation in foraging time may be curtailed by the energetic requirements of reproduction, behavioral synchrony caused by group-living, and/or individual preferences. While niche differentiation in activity budgets by color vision type is not apparent, fine-scale niche differentiation may be occurring. This research enhances our understanding of the evolutionary processes maintaining sensory polymorphisms.</p>
Data from: Spatial analyses of two color polymorphisms in an alpine grasshopper reveal a role of small‐scale heterogeneity
Discrete color polymorphisms represent a fascinating aspect of intraspecific diversity. Color morph ratios often vary clinally, but in some cases, there are no marked clines and mixes of different morphs occur at appreciable frequencies in most populations. This poses the questions of how polymorphisms are maintained. We here study the spatial and temporal distribution of a very conspicuous color polymorphism in the club‐legged grasshopper Gomphocerus sibiricus. The species occurs in a green and a nongreen (predominately brown) morph, a green–brown polymorphism that is common among Orthopteran insects. We sampled color morph ratios at 42 sites across the alpine range of the species and related color morph ratios to local habitat parameters and climatic conditions. Green morphs occurred in both sexes, and their morph ratios were highly correlated among sites, suggesting shared control of the polymorphism in females and males. We found that in at least 40 of 42 sites green and brown morphs co‐occurred with proportions of green ranging from 0% to 70% with significant spatial heterogeneity. The proportion of green individuals tended to increase with decreasing summer and winter precipitations. Nongreen individuals can be further distinguished into brown and pied individuals, and again, this polymorphism is shared with other grasshopper species. We found pied individuals at all sites with proportions ranging from 3% to 75%, with slight, but significant variation between years. Pied morphs show a clinal increase in frequency from east to west and decreased with altitude and lower temperatures and were more common on grazed sites. The results suggest that both small‐scale and large‐scale spatial heterogeneity affects color morph ratios. The almost universal co‐occurrence of all three color morphs argues against strong effects of genetic drift. Instead, the data suggest that small‐scale migration–selection balance and/or local balancing selection maintain populations polymorphic.
Data from: Breeding success but not mate choice is phenotype- and context-dependent in a color polymorphic raptor
Morph-specific mate choice has been proposed as one of the evolutionary mechanisms that contribute to the maintenance of variation in color polymorphic systems. Coloration usually covaries with other phenotypic traits affecting life history and thus is often used as a criterion for mate choice. Here, we assess whether mating patterns, natal dispersal, and breeding output are phenotype-dependent in the color polymorphic Eleonora's falcon. We used a long-term dataset of 946 individually ringed adult falcons that included 109 individuals monitored from birth up to recruitment into the breeding population. Overall, patterns of mate choice with regard to coloration were neither assortative nor disassortative. Natal dispersal distance was greater in females but was not associated with coloration. Breeding success was both morph-dependent and context-dependent. Although clutch size was similar in differently colored pairs, differences arose in the number of chicks that fledge. In some years, dark males raised more offspring, regardless of female color morph. Differences in the breeding tactics between male morphs could be associated with intraspecific predation and may thus contribute to the observed differences in breeding output, especially when food availability is low. This suggests that mating patterns may interact with other factors and give rise to the observed higher breeding output of dark males only under certain environmental conditions.
Data from: Frequency-dependent and correlational selection pressures have conflicting consequences for assortative mating in a color-polymorphic lizard, Uta stansburiana
Genetically determined polymorphisms incorporating multiple traits can persist in nature under chronic, fluctuating and sometimes conflicting selection pressures. Balancing selection among morphs preserves equilibrium frequencies, while correlational selection maintains favorable trait combinations within each morph. Under negative frequency-dependent selection, females should mate (often disassortatively) with rare male morphotypes to produce conditionally fit offspring. Conversely, under correlational selection, females should mate assortatively to preserve coadapted gene complexes and avoid ontogenetic conflict. Using controlled breeding designs, we evaluated consequences of assortative mating patterns in color-polymorphic side-blotched lizards (Uta stansburiana), to identify conflict between these sources of selection. Females who mated disassortatively, and to conditionally high quality males in the context of frequency-dependent selection, experienced highest fertility rates. In contrast, assortatively-mated females experienced higher fetal viability rates. The trade-off between fertility and egg viability resulted in no overall fitness benefit to either assortative or disassortative mating patterns. These results suggest that ongoing conflict between correlational and frequency dependent selection in polymorphic populations may generate a trade-off between rare-morph advantage and phenotypic integration, and between assortative and disassortative mating decisions. More generally, interactions among multiple sources of diversity-promoting selection can alter adaptations and dynamics predicted to arise under any of these regimes alone.
Data from: Sensory limitations and the maintenance of color polymorphisms: viewing the 'alba' female polymorphism through the visual system of male Colias butterflies
Although color polymorphisms are a widespread and conspicuous component of extant biodiversity, the selective pressures that act to maintain multiple morphs within populations remain poorly understood in most cases. In particular, the role that visual system limitations may play in maintaining multiple color morphs is not well explored. We used a female-limited color polymorphism common to the butterfly genus Colias, called the 'alba' polymorphism, to investigate the hypotheses that mate-searching males may struggle to discriminate pale 'alba' females from co-occurring heterospecific white butterflies and/or heterospecific 'alba' females, or that 'alba' females may be more difficult to detect than non-'alba' females in natural scenes. Such perceptual limitations may influence the relative mating rates of 'alba' versus non-'alba' females, contributing to the evolutionary persistence of both morphs. Based on receptor-noise-limited modeling of the male Colias visual system, we find that 'alba' females exhibit chromatic and luminance contrasts against background foliage that are most similar to the 'alba' females of other co-occurring Colias species and females of the co-occurring white butterfly Pieris rapae. When compared to other co-flying butterflies including non-'alba' females, 'alba' females are consistently lower in chromatic contrast against background, but higher in luminance contrast. When viewed side-by-side, we estimate that male Colias should be able to discriminate 'alba' females from other co-occurring heterospecific butterflies, including heterospecific 'albas'. However, under field conditions that involve larger distances in space or time, males are likely to face challenges discriminating between conspecific 'alba' females and co-occurring heterospecific white butterflies, particularly heterospecific 'alba' females. Our results suggest that constraints arising from male visual function may be involved in the maintenance of this color polymorphism, particularly in populations that co-occur with other 'alba'-polymorphic Colias species. We argue that such visual system constraints may play a larger role in the maintenance of color polymorphism than has been empirically appreciated to date.
Data from: The genetic basis of a rare flower color polymorphism in Mimulus lewisii provides insight to the evolutionary mutation spectrum
A long-standing question in evolutionary biology asks whether the genetic changes contributing to phenotypic evolution are predictable. Here, we identify a genetic change associated with segregating variation in flower color within a population of Mimulus lewisii. To determine whether these types of changes are predictable, we combined this information with data from other species to investigate whether the spectrum of mutations affecting flower color transitions differs based on the evolutionary time-scale since divergence. We used classic genetic techniques, along with gene expression and population genetic approaches, to identify the putative, loss-of-function mutation that generates rare, white flowers instead of the common, pink color in M. lewisii. We found that a frameshift mutation in an anthocyanin pathway gene is responsible for the white-flowered polymorphism found in this population of M. lewisii. Comparison of our results with data from other species reveals a broader spectrum of flower color mutations segregating within populations relative to those that fix between populations. These results suggest that the genetic basis of fixed differences in flower color may be predictable, but that for segregating variation is not.
Data from: Not everything is black and white: color and behavioral variation reveal a continuum between cryptic and aposematic strategies in a polymorphic poison frog
Aposematism and crypsis are often viewed as two extremes of a continuum of visual conspicuousness to predators. Theory predicts that behavioral and coloration conspicuousness should vary in tandem along the conspicuousness spectrum for antipredator strategies to be effective. Here we used visual modeling of contrast and behavioral observations to examine the conspicuousness of four populations of the granular poison frog, Oophaga granulifera, which exhibits almost continuous variation in dorsal color. The patterns of geographic variation in color, visual contrast, and behavior support a gradient of overall conspicuousness along the distribution of O. granulifera. Red and green populations, at the extremes of the color distribution, differ in all elements of color, contrast, and behavior, strongly reflecting aposematic and cryptic strategies. However, there is no smooth cline in any elements of behavior or coloration between the two extremes. Instead populations of intermediate colors attain intermediate conspicuousness by displaying different combinations of aposematic and cryptic traits. We argue that coloration divergence among populations may be linked to the evolution of a gradient of strategies to balance the costs of detection by predators and the benefits of learned aversion.
Data from: Regulatory changes in pterin and carotenoid genes underlie balanced color polymorphisms in the wall lizard
Reptiles use pterin and carotenoid pigments to produce yellow, orange, and red colors. These conspicuous colors serve a diversity of signaling functions, but their molecular basis remains unresolved. Here, we show that the genomes of sympatric color morphs of the European common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis), which differ in orange and yellow pigmentation and in their ecology and behavior, are virtually undifferentiated. Genetic differences are restricted to two small regulatory regions, near genes associated with pterin (SPR) and carotenoid metabolism (BCO2), demonstrating that a core gene in the housekeeping pathway of pterin biosynthesis has been co-opted for bright coloration in reptiles and indicating that these loci exert pleiotropic effects on other aspects of physiology. Pigmentation differences are explained by extremely divergent alleles and haplotype analysis revealed abundant trans-specific allele sharing with other lacertids exhibiting color polymorphisms. The evolution of these conspicuous color ornaments is the result of ancient genetic variation and cross-species hybridization.
Data from: Reproductive character displacement shapes a spatially structured petal color polymorphism in Leavenworthia stylosa
Character displacement is a potentially important process driving trait evolution and species diversification. Floral traits may experience character displacement in response to pollinator-mediated competition (ecological character displacement) or the risk of forming hybrids with reduced fitness (reproductive character displacement). We test these and alternative hypotheses to explain a yellow-white petal color polymorphism in Leavenworthia stylosa, where yellow morphs are spatially associated with a white-petaled congener (L. exigua) that produces hybrids with complete pollen sterility. A reciprocal transplant experiment found limited evidence of local adaptation of yellow color morphs via increased survival and seed set. Pollinator observations revealed that Leavenworthia attract various pollinators that generally favor white petals and exhibit color constancy. Pollen limitation experiments showed that yellow petals do not alleviate competition for pollination. Interspecific pollinator movements were infrequent and low hybridization rates (∼0.40% - 0.85%) were found in each morph, with natural rates likely being lower. Regardless, hybridization rates were significantly higher in white morphs of L. stylosa, yielding a small selection coefficient of s = 0.0042 against this phenotype in sympatry with L. exigua. These results provide support for reproductive character displacement as a mechanism contributing to the pattern of petal color polymorphism in L. stylosa.
Data from: Hybridization promotes color polymorphism in the aposematic harlequin poison frog, Oophaga histrionica
Whether hybridization can be a mechanism that drives phenotypic diversity is a widely debated topic in evolutionary biology. In poison frogs (Dendrobatidae), assortative mating has been invoked to explain how new color morphs persist despite the expected homogenizing effects of natural selection. Here, we tested the complementary hypothesis that new morphs arise through hybridization between different color morphs. Specifically, we (1) reconstructed the phylogenetic relationships among the studied populations of a dart-poison frog to provide an evolutionary framework, (2) tested whether microsatellite allele frequencies of one putative hybrid population of the polymorphic frog O. histrionica are intermediate between O. histrionica and O. lehmanni, and (3) conducted mate-choice experiments to test whether putatively intermediate females prefer homotypic males over males from the other two populations. Our findings are compatible with a hybrid origin for the new morph and emphasize the possibility of hybridization as a mechanism generating variation in polymorphic species. Moreover, because coloration in poison frogs is aposematic and should be heavily constrained, our findings suggest that hybridization can produce phenotypic novelty even in systems where phenotypes are subject to strong stabilizing selection.
Data from: Trade-offs in female signal apparency to males offer alternative anti-harassment strategies for color polymorphic females
Color polymorphisms are known to influence receiver behavior, but how they affect a receiver's ability to detect and recognize individuals in nature is usually unknown. I hypothesized that polymorphic female damselflies represent an evolutionary stable strategy, maintained by trade-offs between the relative apparency of morphs to male receivers. Using field experiments on Enallagma hageni and focal studies of E. hageni and E. boreale, I tested for the first time the predictions that 1) green heteromorphs and blue andromorphs gain differential protection from sexual harassment via background crypsis and sexual mimicry respectively, and 2) female morphs behaviorally optimize their signal apparency to mate-searching males. First, based on male reactions elicited by females, against a high contrast background the two morphs did not differ in being detected by males and once detected, did not differ in being recognized (eliciting sexual reactions). However, on green ferns, heteromorphs were detected less often (elicited only fly-bys) than andromorphs but once detected, the morphs did not differ in being recognized. In contrast, when perched on a dowel with two male signal distractors, andromorphs were detected less often and once detected, were recognized less often than heteromorphs. Second, in fields where females foraged, andromorphs perched higher on vegetation than heteromorphs, and were more often in the vicinity of males. Neither harassment rates nor evasive behaviors differed between morphs. Males aggregated in high density near shore where solitary females were rare. Equilibrium frequencies of these and other color morphs should reflect the relative ease with which receivers detect and recognize them in the context where they are encountered.
FIGURES 14A–C. Anelosimus nelsoni n in New species of Anelosimus (Araneae: Theridiidae) from Africa and Southeast Asia, with notes on sociality and color polymorphism
FIGURES 14A–C. Anelosimus nelsoni n. sp. A, male pedipalpus, ventral (C conductor, E embolus, EB 'embolic division b', MA median apophysis, TTA theridiid tegular apophysis); B, epigynum, ventral; C, epigynum cleared, dorsal (CD copulatory ducts, FD fertilization ducts, S spermathecae), line sketch above shows trajectory of the copulatory ducts to the spermathecae. Scale bars (left for pedipalpus, right for epigyna): 100 m.
FIGURES 2A–E in New species of Anelosimus (Araneae: Theridiidae) from Africa and Southeast Asia, with notes on sociality and color polymorphism
FIGURES 2A–E. Photographs of webs of A. kohi. A–C, colonies of different sizes; A, web containing female with large juveniles; B, female with small juveniles; C, female with egg sac. D–E, female guarding egg sac. The leaves are taken from a small web the female typically attaches two leafs (D) to form a retreat, one or both leafs may also be folded (E). Inside the retreat the spider guards the egg sac surrounded by a thin silk envelope (E).
FIGURES 3A–I. Anelosimus kohi, color polymorphism. A in New species of Anelosimus (Araneae: Theridiidae) from Africa and Southeast Asia, with notes on sociality and color polymorphism
FIGURES 3A–I. Anelosimus kohi, color polymorphism. A, female, dark morph from Singapore; B, female, dark morph from Malaysia; C, male, dark morph from Singapore; D, male light morph from Malaysia; E–G, female with egg sac, light morph from Malaysia, note how egg sac is clasped with the cheliceral fangs and palpal claws; H, female with egg sac, light morph from Singapore; I, female unusual pale morph from Singapore.
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