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114 results for “inducible defense”
Data from: Patterns of constitutive and induced herbivore defense are complex, but share a common genetic basis in annual and perennial monkeyflower
<p>Despite multiple ecological and evolutionary hypotheses that predict patterns of phenotypic relationships between plant growth, reproduction, and constitutive and/or induced resistance to herbivores, these hypotheses do not make any predictions about the underlying molecular genetic mechanisms that mediate these relationships. We investigated how divergent plant life-history strategies in the yellow monkeyflower and a life-history altering locus, DIV1 influence plasticity of phytochemical herbivory resistance traits in response to attack by two herbivore species with different diet breadth. Life-history strategy (annual vs. perennial) and the DIV1 locus significantly influenced levels of constitutive herbivory resistance, as well as resistance induction following both generalist and specialist herbivory. Perennial plants had higher total levels of univariate constitutive and induced defense than annuals, regardless of herbivore type. Annuals induced less in response to generalist herbivory than did perennials, while induction response was equivalent across the ecotypes for specialist herbivory. The effects of the DIV1 locus on levels of constitutive and induced defense were dependent on genetic background, the annual versus perennial haplotype of DIV1, and herbivore identity. The patterns of univariate induction due to DIV1 were non-additive and did not always match expectations based on patterns of divergence for annual/perennial parents. For example, perennial plants had higher levels of constitutive and induced defense than did annuals, but when the annual DIV1 was present in the perennial genetic background induction response to herbivory was higher than for the perennial parent lines. Patterns for multivariate defense arsenals generally echoed those of univariate, with annual and perennial monkeyflowers and those with alternative versions of DIV1 differing significantly in constitutive and induced resistance. Like univariate resistance, induced multivariate defense arsenals were affected by herbivore identity. Our results highlight the complexity of the genetic mechanisms underlying plastic response to herbivory. While a genetic locus underlying substantial phenotypic variation in life-history strategy and constitutive defense also influences defense plasticity, the induction response also depends on genetic background. This result demonstrates the potential for some degree of evolutionary independence between constitutive and induced defense, or induced defense and life-history strategy, in monkeyflowers.</p>
Heat Stress and Microbial Stress Induced Defensive Phenol Accumulation in Medicinal Plant Sparganium stoloniferum
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Data for: Sex matters: Predator presence induces sexual dimorphism in a monomorphic prey, from stress genes to morphological defenses
<p>Inducible defences allow prey to increase survival chances when predators are present while avoiding unnecessary costs in their absence. Many studies report considerable inter-individual variation in inducible-defence expression, yet what underlies this variation is poorly understood. A classic vertebrate example of a predator‐induced morphological defence is the increased body depth in crucian carp (<em>Carassius carassius</em>), which reduces the risk of predation from gape‐size limited predators. Here, we report that among-individual variation in morphological defence expression can be linked to sex. We documented sexual dimorphism in lakes in which crucian carp coexisted with predators, where females showed shallower relative body depths than males, but not in a predator-free lake. When exposing crucian carp from a population without predators to perceived predation risk in a laboratory environment (presence/absence of pike, <em>Esox lucius</em>), we found that males expressed significantly greater morphological defence than females, causing sexual dimorphism only in the presence of predators. We uncovered a correlative link between the sex-specific <em>inducible phenotypic </em>response and gene expression patterns in major stress-related genes (<em>POMC</em>,<em> MC3R</em>,<em> MC4R</em>). Together, our results highlight that sex-specific responses may be an important, yet underappreciated, component underlying inter-individual differences in the expression of inducible defences, even in species without pronounced sexual dimorphism. </p>
DATASET: Temperature Differentially Influences the Capacity of Trichoderma Species to Induce Plant Defense Responses in Tomato Against Insect Pests
<p>Species of the ecological opportunistic, avirulent fungus, <em>Trichoderma</em> are widely used in agriculture for their ability to protect crops from the attack of pathogenic fungi and for plant growth promotion activity. Recently, it has been shown that they may also have complementary properties that enhance plant defense barriers against insects. However, the use of these fungi is somewhat undermined by their variable level of biocontrol activity, which is influenced by environmental conditions. Understanding the source of this variability is essential for its profitable and wide use in plant protection. Here, we focus on the impact of temperature on <em>Trichoderma afroharzianum</em> T22, <em>Trichoderma atroviride</em> P1, and the defense response induced in tomato by insects. The <em>in vitro</em> development of these two strains was differentially influenced by temperature, and the observed pattern was consistent with temperature-dependent levels of resistance induced by them in tomato plants against the aphid, <em>Macrosiphum euphorbiae</em>, and the noctuid moth, <em>Spodoptera littoralis</em>. Tomato plants treated with <em>T. afroharzianum</em> T22 exhibited enhanced resistance toward both insect pests at 25°C, while <em>T. atroviride</em> P1 proved to be more effective at 20°C. The comparison of plant transcriptomic profiles generated by the two <em>Trichoderma</em> species allowed the identification of specific defense genes involved in the observed response, and a selected group was used to assess, by real-time quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR), the differential gene expression in <em>Trichoderma</em>-treated tomato plants subjected to the two temperature regimens that significantly affected fungal biological performance. These results will help pave the way toward a rational selection of the most suitable <em>Trichoderma</em> isolates for field applications, in order to best face the challenges imposed by local environmental conditions and by extreme climatic shifts due to global warming.</p>
Data from: Tradeoffs affect the adaptive value of plasticity: Stronger cannibal-induced defenses incur greater costs in toad larvae
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Data from: Context-dependent defences in turtle ants: resource defensibility and threat level induce dynamic shifts in soldier deployment
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Data from: Induced defense and its cost in two bryophyte species
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Data from: Patterns of constitutive and induced herbivore defense are complex, but share a common genetic basis in annual and perennial monkeyflower
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Data from: Induced phenological avoidance: a neglected defense mechanism against seed predation in plants
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Data for: Sex matters: Predator presence induces sexual dimorphism in a monomorphic prey, from stress genes to morphological defenses
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Resource gradients create energy trade-offs in the inducible defense response of <em>Paramecium aurelia</em>
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Plant volatiles induced by herbivore eggs prime defenses and mediate shifts in the reproductive strategy of receiving plants
<p>Plants can detect cues associated with the risk of future herbivory and modify defense phenotypes accordingly; however, our current understanding is limited both with respect to the range of early warning cues to which plants respond and the nature of the responses. Here we report that exposure to volatile emissions from plant tissues infested with herbivore eggs promotes stronger defense responses to subsequent herbivory in two Brassica species. Furthermore, exposure to these volatile cues elicited an apparent shift from growth to reproduction in Brassica nigra, with exposed plants exhibiting increased flower and seed production, but reduced leaf production, relative to unexposed controls. Our results thus document plant defense priming in response to a novel environmental cue, oviposition-induced plant volatiles, while also showing that plant responses to early warning cues can include changes in both defense and life-history traits.</p>
Optimal Defense Theory in an ant‐plant mutualism: extrafloral nectar as an induced defense is maximized in the most valuable plant structures
<ol> <li class="Normal1">Optimal Defense Theory (ODT) predicts that to maximize the benefits of defense against herbivores while minimizing its costs, plants will <span><span>invest in defenses</span></span> to structures according to their value and to the likelihood that they will be attacked. Constitutive defenses are expected in structures of high value, whereas induced defenses are expected in structures of low value. Regarding the biotic defense mediated by extrafloral nectaries (EFNs) and based on ODT, we predicted that under control conditions EFNs on higher-value structures would produce more nectar than would EFNs on lower-value structures, attracting more ants; however, when damaged, EFNs on higher-value structures would not increase the production of extrafloral nectar (since constitutive defenses should be employed in this region), whereas EFNs on lower-value structures would so (since induced defenses should be employed in this region), at a level commensurate with the extent of damage. </li> <li class="Normal1">Here we test these predictions in a Brazilian ant-plant mutualism. <i>Qualea multiflora</i> (Vochysiaceae), a savanna tree, presents EFNs on both lower-value structures (leaves) and higher-value structures (inflorescences). We simulated herbivory by cutting 10% or 40% of the leaves, or 10% of the flowers, then monitoring extrafloral nectar production and ant attendance. </li> <li class="Normal1">Extrafloral nectar volume and calorie content, as well as ant abundance, were higher in EFNs of inflorescences compared to EFNs of leaves both before and after simulated herbivory, consistent with one of our predictions. However, EFNs on both leaves and inflorescences, not leaves only, were induced by simulated herbivory, a pattern opposite to our prediction. Plants subjected to higher levels of leaf damage (i.e., more damage to lower-value tissues) <span><span>produced more and higher-calorie extrafloral nectar, but showed similar ant abundance, partially consistent with our prediction</span></span>. </li> <li class="Normal1"><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>Our results show that extrafloral nectar production before and after simulated herbivory, as well as the ant recruitment, vary according to the plant structure on which EFNs are located. Our study is unique showing that ant recruitment via extrafloral nectar follows predictions from Optimal Defense Theory, and that the ant foraging patterns may be shaped by the level and region damaged in the plant.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ol>
Data from: Dauer life stage of Caenorhabditis elegans induces elevated levels of defense against the parasite Serratia marcescens
Host-parasite research often focuses on a single host life stage, yet different life stages may exhibit different defenses. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has an alternate dispersal life stage, dauer. Despite dauer's importance in nature, we know little of how it responds to parasites. Previous research indicates that non-dauer C. elegans prefer to consume the virulent bacterial parasite, Serratia marcescens, when given a choice between the parasite and benign Escherichia coli. Here, we compared the preferences of dauer individuals from six strains of C. elegans to the preferences of other life stages. We found that dauer individuals exhibited reduced preference for S. marcescens, and dauers from some strains preferred E. coli to S. marcescens. In addition to testing food preference, a mechanism of parasite avoidance, we also measured host mortality rates after direct parasite exposure to determine if life stage also altered host survival. Overall, dauer individuals exhibited reduced mortality rates. However, dauer versus non-dauer larvae mortality rates also varied significantly by host strain. Collectively, we found evidence of dauer-induced parasite avoidance and reduced mortality in the presence of a parasite, but these effects were strain-specific. These results demonstrate the importance of host life stage and genotype when assessing infection dynamics.
Data from: Cascading effects of induced terrestrial plant defenses on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem function
Herbivores induce plants to undergo diverse processes that minimize costs to the plant, such as producing defences to deter herbivory or reallocating limited resources to inaccessible portions of the plant. Yet most plant tissue is consumed by decomposers, not herbivores, and these defensive processes aimed to deter herbivores may alter plant tissue even after detachment from the plant. All consumers value nutrients, but plants also require these nutrients for primary functions and defensive processes. We experimentally simulated herbivory with and without nutrient additions on red alder (Alnus rubra), which supplies the majority of leaf litter for many rivers in western North America. Simulated herbivory induced a defence response with cascading effects: terrestrial herbivores and aquatic decomposers fed less on leaves from stressed trees. This effect was context dependent: leaves from fertilized-only trees decomposed most rapidly while leaves from fertilized trees receiving the herbivory treatment decomposed least, suggesting plants funnelled a nutritionally valuable resource into enhanced defence. One component of the defence response was a decrease in leaf nitrogen leading to elevated carbon : nitrogen. Aquatic decomposers prefer leaves naturally low in C : N and this altered nutrient profile largely explains the lower rate of aquatic decomposition. Furthermore, terrestrial soil decomposers were unaffected by either treatment but did show a preference for local and nitrogen-rich leaves. Our study illustrates the ecological implications of terrestrial herbivory and these findings demonstrate that the effects of selection caused by terrestrial herbivory in one ecosystem can indirectly shape the structure of other ecosystems through ecological fluxes across boundaries.
Drought-induced reductions in plant defenses
Extrafloral nectaries (EFNs) are anti-herbivory defense-related glands. We measured morphological and anatomical EFN traits in Pityrocarpa moniliformis trees along a rainfall gradient in Caatinga dry forest. We observed a reduction in structural EFN traits as rainfall decreased. We conclude that this reduction is a cost-saving strategy, probably mediated by ants.
Predator community and resource use jointly modulate the inducible defense response in body height of crucian carp
<p>Phenotypic plasticity can be expressed as changes in body shape in response to environmental variability. Crucian carp (<i>Carassius carassius</i>), a widespread cyprinid, displays remarkable plasticity in body morphology and increases body depth when exposed to cues from predators, suggesting the triggering of an anti-predator defense mechanism. However, these morphological changes could also be related to resource use and foraging behavior, as an indirect effect of predator presence. In order to determine whether phenotypic plasticity in crucian carp is driven by a direct or indirect response to predation threat, we compared twelve fish communities inhabiting small lakes in southeast Norway grouped by four categories of predation regimes: no predator fish, or brown trout (<i>Salmo trutta</i>), perch (<i>Perca fluviatilis</i>) or pike (<i>Esox lucius</i>) as main piscivores. We predicted the body shape of crucian carp to be associated with the species composition of predator communities, and that the presence of efficient piscivores results in a deeper body shape. We use stable isotope analyses to test if this variation in body shape was related to a shift in individual resource use – i.e., littoral rather than pelagic resource use would favor the development of a specific body shape - or other environmental characteristics. The results showed that increasingly efficient predator communities induced progressively deeper body shape, larger body size and lower population densities. Predator maximum gape size and individual trophic position were the best variables explaining crucian carp variation in body depth among predation categories, while littoral resource use did not have a clear effect. The gradient in predation pressure also corresponded to a shift in lake productivity. These results indicate that crucian carp have a fine-tuned morphological defense mechanism against predation risk, triggered by the combined effect of predator presence and resource availability.</p>
Data from: Root inoculation with beneficial soil microbes enhances indirect plant defenses induced by insect feeding and egg deposition
<p>Plants can respond to insect egg deposition by emitting oviposition-induced plant volatiles (OIPVs) recruiting parasitoids. The recruitment of carnivore insects in response to egg deposition is considered an indirect defense strategy that is widespread in the plant kingdom. In recent years, there has been increasing evidence showing that microbial colonization can influence the strength of plant responses to insect herbivory, yet no information is available on how beneficial microbes modulate indirect defenses induced by insect egg deposition. In this work, we evaluated the effects of inoculation with the beneficial soil fungus <em>Trichoderma harzianum</em> strain T22 on a tritrophic system consisting of tomato, the southern green stink bug <em>Nezara viridula</em> and its associated egg parasitoid <em>Trissolcus basalis</em>. We used Y-tube olfactometer assays to evaluate the behavioral responses of the parasitoids to OIPVs emitted by plants colonized with beneficial soil microbes. We also used gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to investigate how root inoculation with <em>T. harzianum</em> T22 affects the chemical composition of induced plant volatiles. 3. In olfactometer assays, we found that root inoculation with <em>T.</em> <em>harzianum</em> T22 enhanced the attraction of the egg parasitoid towards tomato plants induced by <em>N. viridula</em> feeding and oviposition activities. In particular, the egg parasitoid preferred OIPVs emitted by tomato plants previously inoculated with <em>T. harzianum</em> T22 over OIPVs emitted by non-inoculated plants. Furthermore, chemical analysis showed that root inoculation with <em>T. harzianum</em> T22 resulted in changes in the composition of OIPVs, which was consistent with the behavioral observations. Among the compounds that strongly contribute to the chemical differences between OIPVs from non-inoculated and inoculated plants, chemical analysis identified green leaf volatiles ((Z)-3-hepten-1-ol, (E,E)-2,4-hexadienal), along with terpenoids (terpinen 4-ol, α-tujene and δ-elemene). 4. Taken together our results indicate that beneficial soil microbes enhance indirect plant defenses induced by feeding and oviposition, broadening our understanding of plant responses to insect eggs. Our results underscore the importance of taking into account the role of microorganisms to fully comprehend the intricate interactions among plants, herbivore eggs and their associated egg parasitoids.</p>
Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria modulate induced corn defense against Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
<p>Common cutworm, <em>Spodoptera litura</em> is an important pest of corn causing significant crop yield loss. Synthetic insecticides have mostly been used to combat this pest, raising human and environmental health concerns. Plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) could compensate for or augment the harmful effects of agrochemicals. Herein, we aimed to assess whether PGPR-induced defenses in corn plants impact the host-plant selection behavior of <em>S. litura</em>. Headspace volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were analyzed using Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Larvae-fed inoculated corn exhibited lower weights and RGR than non-inoculated plants. Under choice experiments, PGPR-treated plants significantly reduced percentage leaf damage area and oviposition rate compared to untreated plants. VOC ratio emission varied significantly between control and PGPR treatments, which, in part, explains feeding and oviposition deterrence in PGPR-treated plants. The results demonstrate that PGPR inoculation can enhance corn resistance to <em>S. litura</em>, making it a promising candidate for crop protection strategies.</p>
Bacillus species are core microbiota of resistant maize varieties that induce host metabolic defense against corn stalk rot
<p>Codes for the paper "Bacillus species are core microbiota of resistant maize varieties that induce host metabolic defense against corn stalk rot".</p>
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