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204 results for “plant defenses”
Data from: Relaxation of putative plant defenses in a tropical agroecosystem
<p>Evidence of the effects of agriculture on natural systems is widespread, but potential evolutionary responses in non-target species are largely uncharacterized. To explore whether exposure to agrochemicals may influence selective pressures and phenotypic expression in non-agricultural plant populations, we characterized the expression of putative anti-herbivore defense phenotypes in three non-agricultural species found upstream and downstream of irrigated rice fields in Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica. We found that plants downstream of chemically intensive agriculture showed shifts toward reduced expression of putative anti-herbivore defenses relative to upstream counterparts. In two of three tested species, leaf extracts from downstream plants were more palatable to a generalist consumer, suggesting a possible reduction of chemical defenses. In one species with multiple modes of putative defenses, we observed parallel reductions of three metrics of putative biotic and physical defenses. These reductions were concurrent with reduced herbivore damage on downstream plants. Together, these results suggest that agriculture has the potential to alter intraspecific phenotypic expression, ecological interactions, and natural selection in non-target plant populations.</p>
Unraveling the roles of genotype and environment in the expression of plant defense phenotypes
<p>1. Phenotypic variability results from interactions between genotype and environment and is a major driver of ecological and evolutionary interactions. Measuring the relative contributions of genetic variation, the environment, and their interaction to phenotypic variation remains a fundamental goal of evolutionary ecology.</p> <p>2. In this study, we assess the question: How do genetic variation and local environmental conditions interact to influence phenotype within a single population? We explored this question using seed from a single population of common milkweed, <i>Asclepias syriaca</i>, in northern Michigan. We first measured resistance and resistance traits of 14 maternal lines in two common garden experiments (field and greenhouse) to detect genetic variation within the population. We carried out a reciprocal transplant experiment with three of these maternal lines to assess effects of local environment on phenotype. Finally, we compared the phenotypic traits measured in our experiments with the phenotypic traits of the naturally-growing maternal genets to be able to compare relative effect of genetic and environmental variation on naturally-occurring phenotypic variation. We measured defoliation levels, arthropod abundances, foliar cardenolide concentrations, foliar latex exudation, foliar carbon and nitrogen concentrations, and plant growth.</p> <p>3. We found a striking lack of correlation in trait expression of the maternal lines between the common gardens, or between the common gardens and the naturally-growing maternal genets, suggesting that environment plays a larger role in phenotypic trait variation of this population. We found evidence of significant genotype-by-environment interactions for all traits except foliar concentrations of nitrogen and cardenolide. Milkweed resistance to chewing herbivores was associated more strongly with the growing environment. We observed no variation in foliar cardenolide concentrations among maternal lines but did observe variation among maternal lines in foliar latex exudation.</p> <p>4. Overall, our data reveal powerful genotype-by-environment interactions on the expression of most resistance traits in milkweed.</p>
Data set for: Leaf trait association in relation to herbivore defense, drought resistance, and economics in a tropical invasive plant
<p><strong><span>Premsie</span></strong><span>: </span><span>Exploring how functional traits vary and covary is important to understand plant responses to environmental change. However, we have limited understanding of the ways multiple functional traits vary and covary within invasive species.</span></p> <p><strong><span>Methods</span></strong><span>:</span> <span>We measured 12 leaf traits of an invasive plant <em>Chromolaena odorata</em>, associated with plant or leaf economics, herbivore defense, and drought resistance on 10 introduced populations from Asia and 12 native populations from America, selected across a broad range of climatic conditions, and grown in a common garden</span><span>.</span></p> <p><strong><span>Results</span></strong><span>: </span><span>Species'</span> <span>range and climatic conditions influenced leaf traits, but trait variation across climate space differed between the introduced and native ranges. Traits that confer defense against herbivores and drought resistance were associated with economic strategy, but the patterns differed by range. Plants from introduced populations that were at the fast-return end of the spectrum (high photosynthetic capacity) had high physical defense traits (high trichome density), whereas plants from native populations that were at the fast-return end of the spectrum had high drought escape traits (early leaf senescence and high percentage of withered shoots).</span></p> <p><strong> <span>Conclusions</span></strong><span>:</span> <span>Our results indicate that invasive plants can rapidly adapt to novel environmental conditions. <em>C. odorata</em> showed multiple different functional trait covariation patterns and clines in the native and introduced ranges. Our results emphasize that interaction between multiple traits or functions should be considered when investigating the adaptive evolution of invasive plants.</span></p>
Defensive mutualists affect outcross pollen transfer and male fitness in their host plant
<p>Ant guards can increase plant fitness by deterring herbivores, but they may also reduce it by interfering with pollination. While ant impacts on herbivory have been well-studied, much less is known about their impacts on pollinators and associated consequences for plant pollination, particularly pollen transfer dynamics and outcrossing/selfing rates. We used field experiments to quantify the effect of ant guards on pollinator community composition, frequency and duration of flower visits, and cascading effects on outcrossing pollen transfer and pollen exports in Turnera velutina (Passifloraceae). Although ant patrolling did not affect pollinator community composition or visitation frequency, it decreased flower visit duration and the time pollinators spent foraging inside flowers. Such behavioural changes resulted in reduced pollen deposition on stigmas, decreased pollen exports (a proxy for male fitness) and significantly doubled outcross pollen transfer. This study contributes to our understanding of how nonpollinator mutualists can shape plant reproductive processes. We discuss the downstream effects that variation in biotic defences, such as rewards for guarding ants, can have on plant pollen transfer patterns and fitness. In conclusion, guarding ants influence pollen transfer patterns in Turnera velutina, increasing outcrossing in a self-compatible species at the cost of male fitness. We show how non-pollinators, such as defensive ant mutualists, can shape plant reproductive traits and discuss the consequences these interactions may have for plant mating systems.</p>
Heat Stress and Microbial Stress Induced Defensive Phenol Accumulation in Medicinal Plant Sparganium stoloniferum
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Biogenic secondary organic aerosol participates in plant interactions and herbivory defense
<p>Biogenic secondary organic aerosols (SOAs) can be formed from the oxidation of plant volatiles in the atmosphere. Herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) can elicit plant defenses, but whether such ecological functions persist after they form SOAs was previously unknown. Here we show that Scots pine seedlings damaged by large pine weevils feeding on their roots release HIPVs that trigger defenses in neighboring conspecific plants. Interestingly, the biological activity persisted after HIPVs had been oxidized to form SOAs, which was indicated by receivers displaying enhanced photosynthesis, primed volatile defenses, and reduced weevil damage. The elemental composition and quantity of SOAs likely determines their biological functions. This work demonstrates that plant-derived SOAs can mediate interactions between plants, highlighting its ecological significance in ecosystems.</p>
Data from: Contingency rules for pathogen competition and antagonism in a genetically based, plant defense hierarchy
1. Plant defense against pathogens includes a range of mechanisms, including, but not limited to, genetic resistance, pathogen-antagonizing endophytes, and pathogen competitors. The relative importance of each mechanism can be expressed in a hierarchical view of defense. Several recent studies have shown that pathogen antagonism is inconsistently expressed within the plant defense hierarchy. Our hypothesis is that the hierarchy is governed by contingency rules that determine when and where antagonists reduce plant disease severity. 2. Here, we investigated whether pathogen competition influences pathogen antagonism using Populus as a model system. In three independent field experiments, we asked whether competition for leaf mesophyll cells between a Melampsora rust pathogen and a microscopic, eriophyid mite affects rust pathogen antagonism by fungal leaf endophytes. The rust pathogen has an annual, phenological disadvantage in competition with the mite because the rust pathogen must infect its secondary host in spring before infecting Populus. We varied mite-rust competition by utilizing Populus genotypes characterized by differential genetic resistance to the two organisms. We inoculated plants with endophtyes and allowed mites and rust to infect plants naturally. 3. Two contingency rules emerged from the three field experiments: 1) pathogen antagonism by endophytes can be preempted by host genes for resistance that suppress pathogen development, and 2) pathogen antagonism by endophtyes can secondarily be preempted by competitive exclusion of the rust by the mite. 4. Synthesis: Our results point to a Populus defense hierarchy with resistance genes on top, followed by pathogen competition, and finally pathogen antagonism by endophytes. We expect these rules will help to explain the variation in pathogen antagonism that is currently attributed to context dependency.
Evolutionary changes in an invasive plant support the defensive role of plant volatiles
<p>It is increasingly evident that plants interact with their outside world through the production of volatile organic compounds, but whether the volatiles have evolved to serve in plant defense is still a topic of considerable debate. Unharmed leaves constitutively release small amounts of volatiles, but when the leaves are damaged by herbivorous arthropods, they emit substantially more volatiles. These herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) attract parasitoids and predators that kill insect herbivores, and this can benefit the plants. As yet, however, there is no tangible evolutionary evidence that this tritrophic interplay contributes to the selection forces that have shaped the volatile emissions of plants. With this in mind, we investigated the evolutionary changes in volatile emissions in invasive common ragwort and the respective defensive roles of its constitutive and inducible volatiles. This Eurasian plant has invaded other continents, where it evolved for many generations in the absence of specialized herbivores and their natural enemies. We found that, compared to native ragworts, invasive plants release higher levels of constitutive volatiles but considerably lower levels of herbivore-induced volatiles. As a consequence, invasive ragwort is more attractive to a specialist moth but avoided by an unadapted generalist moth. Importantly, conforming to the indirect defense hypothesis, a specialist parasitoid was much more attracted to caterpillar-damaged native ragwort, which was reflected in higher parasitism rates in a field trial. The evolution of foliar volatile emissions appears to be indeed driven by their direct and indirect roles in defenses against insects.</p>
Plant species with higher chemical defenses enhance herbivore cellular immunity with differential effectiveness against two parasitoid species
<p>Insect herbivores simultaneously experience bottom-up effects of plant defensive chemistry and the top-down effects of natural enemies. At the intersection of these effects are herbivore immune systems, herbivore traits that have largely been overlooked in studies of plant-insect interactions. Most previous studies have demonstrated compromised immunity of herbivores that feed on plants with higher defensive chemistry. Many studies have used embedded microfilaments or silica beads as proxies for parasitoid eggs. Yet, parasitoids may evade or suppress host immune responses by injecting venom, calyx fluid, or through modifications of their egg surface structure, necessitating studies that include all three trophic levels to obtain a complete picture of how plant traits may modulate herbivore immunity.Here we examined the effect of host plant species that differ in glucosinolate (anti-herbivore compounds produced by plants in the Brassicaceae) concentrations on the immune status of an herbivore and its consequences for two species of parasitoids with different life history traits.We found that larvae of the butterfly Pieris rapae that fed on field mustard Brassica rapa, which contain 52-fold higher glucosinolate concentrations than collards B. oleracea, attained lower body weights and experienced prolonged development to adulthood.Yet, caterpillars that fed on B. rapa had enhanced cellular immunity, as measured by total and differential hemocyte counts, as well as melanization capacity compared to larvae that fed on B. oleracea.In turn, the likelihood that at least some eggs in clutches of the gregarious endoparasitoid Cotesia glomerata would be encapsulated, leading to a reduction in brood size, were three times greater when their host caterpillars fed on B. rapa compared to B. oleracea. Interestingly, eggs of the solitary endoparasitoid Cotesia rubecula were rarely encapsulated irrespective of the host plant on which their host caterpillar fed. Therefore, our results suggest that plant defense metabolites can influence the expression of herbivore immunity, but the effectiveness of this response strongly depends on the identity of the parasitoid and its ability to evade the caterpillar immune response, and possibly the evolution of these trophic interactions in non-native systems.</p>
Analyzing defense-in-depth properties of nuclear power plant instrumentation and control system architectures using ontologies
<p>A proof-of-concept OWL ontology for representing knowledge over nuclear overall instrumentation & control (I&C) system architectures, and two case studies built around a proposed US variant of the European Pressurized Water Reactor and the NuScale Small Modular Reactor.</p>
DATASET: Temperature Differentially Influences the Capacity of Trichoderma Species to Induce Plant Defense Responses in Tomato Against Insect Pests
<p>Species of the ecological opportunistic, avirulent fungus, <em>Trichoderma</em> are widely used in agriculture for their ability to protect crops from the attack of pathogenic fungi and for plant growth promotion activity. Recently, it has been shown that they may also have complementary properties that enhance plant defense barriers against insects. However, the use of these fungi is somewhat undermined by their variable level of biocontrol activity, which is influenced by environmental conditions. Understanding the source of this variability is essential for its profitable and wide use in plant protection. Here, we focus on the impact of temperature on <em>Trichoderma afroharzianum</em> T22, <em>Trichoderma atroviride</em> P1, and the defense response induced in tomato by insects. The <em>in vitro</em> development of these two strains was differentially influenced by temperature, and the observed pattern was consistent with temperature-dependent levels of resistance induced by them in tomato plants against the aphid, <em>Macrosiphum euphorbiae</em>, and the noctuid moth, <em>Spodoptera littoralis</em>. Tomato plants treated with <em>T. afroharzianum</em> T22 exhibited enhanced resistance toward both insect pests at 25°C, while <em>T. atroviride</em> P1 proved to be more effective at 20°C. The comparison of plant transcriptomic profiles generated by the two <em>Trichoderma</em> species allowed the identification of specific defense genes involved in the observed response, and a selected group was used to assess, by real-time quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR), the differential gene expression in <em>Trichoderma</em>-treated tomato plants subjected to the two temperature regimens that significantly affected fungal biological performance. These results will help pave the way toward a rational selection of the most suitable <em>Trichoderma</em> isolates for field applications, in order to best face the challenges imposed by local environmental conditions and by extreme climatic shifts due to global warming.</p>
Ecosystem stability is determined by plant defense functional traits and population stability under mowing in a semi-arid temperate steppe
<ol> <li><span>As a common grassland management practice in many high-latitude regions worldwide, mowing has great impacts on grassland functioning and stability. Species richness, species asynchrony and species stability have been suggested as central in responses to environmental change. Mowing can evoke plant defense systems due to physical damages to plants. However, no studies have comprehensively evaluated the role of plant defense functional traits, species richness, species asynchrony and stability in ecosystem functioning under mowing regimes across time-scales. </span></li> <li> <span>In the present study, we set up short-term (4-years) and long-term (16-years) mowing experiments with three stubble heights (control, 10 cm, 2 cm) in a temperate steppe of Inner Mongolia. We investigated the effects of mowing-induced changes in distribution metrics associated with plant defense traits, i.e. mean, variance, skewness and kurtosis of trait distribution, on ecosystem stability of grassland communities using structural equation modeling.</span> </li> <li><span>We found that grassland ecosystem stability was enhanced by increasing mowing duration and decreasing stubble height. Mowing-induced increases in abundance and diversity of plant defense traits contributed to greater ecosystem stability by enhancing species asynchrony and population stability. Moreover, we found that mowing enhanced the abundance and diversity of plant defense traits of dominant species and contributed to population stability and species asynchrony, thus enhancing temporal stability of grassland ecosystems. </span></li> <li><span>These results demonstrate the important roles of plant defense traits in maintaining stability of grasslands under mowing, and highlight that, in addition to species richness, asynchrony and population stability, plant functional defense trait act in stabilizing ecosystem functions under human-induced environmental changes.</span></li> </ol>
Late instar monarch caterpillars sabotage milkweed to acquire toxins, not to disarm plant defense
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>Sabotaging milkweed by monarch caterpillars (<em>Danaus</em> <em>plexippus</em>) is a famous textbook example of disarming plant defense. By severing leaf veins or petioles, monarchs are thought to prevent the flow of toxic latex to their feeding site. Here we show that sabotaging by monarch caterpillars is not only an avoidance strategy. While young caterpillars appear to avoid latex, late-instar caterpillars actively ingest exuding latex, presumably to increase sequestration of toxic latex cardenolides used for defense against predators. Comparisons with caterpillars of the related but non-sequestering common crow butterfly (<em>Euploea</em> <em>core</em>) revealed three lines of evidence supporting our hypothesis. First, monarch caterpillars sabotage inconsistently and therefore the behavior is not obligatory to feed on milkweed, whereas sabotaging precedes each feeding event in <em>Euploea</em> caterpillars. Second, monarch caterpillars shift their behavior from latex avoidance in younger stages to eager drinking in later stages, whereas <em>Euploea</em> caterpillars consistently avoid latex and spit it out during sabotaging. Third, monarchs reared on detached leaves without latex, sequestered more cardenolides when caterpillars imbibed latex offered with a pipette. Thus, we conclude that monarch caterpillars have transformed the 'sabotage to avoid' strategy of their relatives into a 'sabotage to consume' strategy implying a novel behavioral adaptation to increase sequestration of cardenolides for defense.</span></p>
A nutrition-defense tradeoff drives diet choice in a toxic plant generalist
<p>Plant toxicity shapes the dietary choices of herbivores. Especially when herbivores sequester plant toxins, they may experience a tradeoff between gaining protection from natural enemies and avoiding toxicity. The availability of toxins for sequestration may additionally trade off with the nutritional quality of a potential food source for sequestering herbivores. We hypothesized that diet mixing might allow a sequestering herbivore to balance nutrition and defense (via sequestration of plant toxins). Accordingly, here we address diet mixing and sequestration of large milkweed bugs (<em>Oncopeltus fasciatus</em>) when they have differential access to toxins (cardenolides) in their diet. In the absence of toxins from a preferred food (milkweed seeds), large milkweed bugs fed on nutritionally adequate non-toxic seeds, but supplemented their diet by feeding on nutritionally poor, but cardenolide-rich milkweed leaf and stem tissues. This dietary shift corresponded to reduced insect growth but facilitated sequestration of defensive toxins. Plant production of cardenolides was also substantially induced by bug feeding on leaf and stem tissues, perhaps benefitting this cardenolide-resistant herbivore. Thus, sequestration appears to drive diet mixing in this toxic plant generalist, even at the cost of feeding on nutritionally poor plant tissue.</p>
Data from "Tissue and toxin-specific divergent evolution in plant defense"
<p>Files and code necessary to replicate the results from the manuscript are described as follows:</p> <p>Syrfampop.sas --> SAS code to conduct the analyses.<br> HPLC_asyr.csv --> contains the cardenolide data of root, leaf and seed tissue from each individual plant belonging to multiple families of each of the two populations (main analysis in SAS code).<br> chemmantelcorr.csv --> contains the correlation matrices between cardenolides within a given tissue (permutation test in SAS code)<br> SS.csv --> contains the sums of squares matrices of cardenolide concentrations at the population and family levels for each tissue and whole plant after the MANOVA in the SAS code (used for the R code in Martin et al. (2008)).<br> ehdbp.vcf --> Description of SNP data used for this study.<br> ehdbp.arp --> SNP data in Arlequin format ready for FST analysis.</p> <p><br> </p>
SI_IV_3_Reverse chemical ecology to study the defense of the plant host Sextonia rubra and the chemical mediators of its endophyte Fusarium falciforme against phytopathogen Trametes versicolor
<p>Ces travaux présentant les données supplémentaires générés lors de l'étude de la confrontation d'isolat identifiés comme des <em>Fusarium falciforme</em> contre<em> Trametes versicolor</em>.</p>
Limited ant co-occurrence and defensive mutualism in Acacia plants in a West African savanna
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Data for: Increasing aridity may threaten the maintenance of a plant defense polymorphism
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Ecosystem stability is determined by plant defense functional traits and population stability under mowing in a semi-arid temperate steppe
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Plant defense trait responses to grazing along an aridity gradient in Inner Mongolian grasslands
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