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Fig. 9 in A new kogiid sperm whale from northern Italy supports psychrospheric conditions in the early Pliocene Mediterranean Sea

Fig. 9. Phylogenetic relationships of Pliokogia apenninica gen. et sp. nov. with other physeteroids. A. Strict consensus tree. B. 50% majority-rule consensus tree. Acrophyseter sp. refers to MUSM 2182, a partial skull from the site of Cerro Los Quesos (upper Miocene, Pisco Formation, Peru); Scaphokogiinae sp. refers to MUSM 3291 and MUSM 3405, two partial skulls from the sites of Cerro Los Quesos and Cerro Blanco, respectively (upper Miocene, Pisco Formation, Peru), representing a new form of Kogiidae sharing similarities with Scaphokogia cochlearis (see the SOM file for further details). Extinct genera and species are marked by a dagger (†).

Fig. 7 in A new kogiid sperm whale from northern Italy supports psychrospheric conditions in the early Pliocene Mediterranean Sea

Fig. 7. Detached tooth of kogiid sperm whale Pliokogia apenninica gen. et sp. nov. (MSNUP I-17603, holotype), from the lower Pliocene of Sant'Andrea Bagni (Northern Apennines, northern Italy), in four different views (A1–A4). The dashed line denotes the extent of the wear facet.

Fig. 8 in A new kogiid sperm whale from northern Italy supports psychrospheric conditions in the early Pliocene Mediterranean Sea

Fig. 8. Postcranial bones of the kogiid sperm whale Pliokogia apenninica gen. et sp. nov. (MSNUP I-17603, holotype), from the lower Pliocene of Sant'Andrea Bagni (Northern Apennines, northern Italy). A. Fragmentary right rib in dorsal (A1), posterior (A2), and ventral (A3) views. B. Fragmentary thoracic vertebra in anterior (B1), posterior (B2), and dorsal (B3) views.

Fig. 5 in A new kogiid sperm whale from northern Italy supports psychrospheric conditions in the early Pliocene Mediterranean Sea

Fig. 5. Cranium of the kogiid sperm whale Pliokogia apenninica gen. et sp. nov. (MSNUP I-17603, holotype), from the lower Pliocene of Sant'Andrea Bagni (Northern Apennines, northern Italy); in anterodorsal (A1) and right anterodorsolateral (A2) views.

Fig. 6 in A new kogiid sperm whale from northern Italy supports psychrospheric conditions in the early Pliocene Mediterranean Sea

Fig. 6. Close-up of the dorsal surface of the cranium of the kogiid sperm whale Pliokogia apenninica gen. et sp. nov. (MSNUP I-17603, holotype), from the lower Pliocene of Sant'Andrea Bagni (Northern Apennines, northern Italy), showing the shark bite marks that affect the right maxilla (arrows).

Fig. 4 in A new kogiid sperm whale from northern Italy supports psychrospheric conditions in the early Pliocene Mediterranean Sea

Fig. 4. Cranium, in lateral view, of the kogiid sperm whale Pliokogia apenninica gen. et sp. nov. (MSNUP I-17603, holotype), from the lower Pliocene of Sant'Andrea Bagni (Northern Apennines, northern Italy). Photograph (A1), explanatory drawing (A2). The grey vertical stripes denote abraded or broken areas. Dashed line for approximating the position of the frontal-lacrimojugal complex suture.

Fig. 3 in A new kogiid sperm whale from northern Italy supports psychrospheric conditions in the early Pliocene Mediterranean Sea

Fig. 3. Cranium, in ventral view, of the kogiid sperm whale Pliokogia apenninica gen. et sp. nov. (MSNUP I-17603, holotype), from the lower Pliocene of Sant'Andrea Bagni (Northern Apennines, northern Italy). Photograph (A1), explanatory drawing (A2). The black-shaded areas correspond to openings in the skull. The grey vertical stripes denote abraded or broken areas. Dashed lines for approximating the position of several sutures and borders.

Fig. 2 in A new kogiid sperm whale from northern Italy supports psychrospheric conditions in the early Pliocene Mediterranean Sea

Fig. 2. Cranium, in dorsal view, of the kogiid sperm whale Pliokogia apenninica gen. et sp. nov. (MSNUP I-17603, holotype), from the lower Pliocene of Sant'Andrea Bagni (Northern Apennines, northern Italy). Photograph (A1), explanatory drawing (A2). The black areas correspond to openings in the skull. The grey vertical stripes denote abraded or broken areas. Dashed lines are for the sagittal vomerine sulcus and the approximate border of the supracranial basin, premaxillary fossa, and peripheral maxillary fossa.

Fig. 1. A in A new kogiid sperm whale from northern Italy supports psychrospheric conditions in the early Pliocene Mediterranean Sea

Fig. 1. A. Geographical position (star) of the lower Pliocene site of Sant'Andrea Bagni, Northern Apennines, northern Italy, where the holotype of Pliokogia apenninica gen. et sp. nov. (MSNUP I-17603) was discovered (image from Google Earth). B. Schematic stratigraphic section of the Pliocene succession exposed at Sant'Andrea Bagni (redrawn and modified after Channel et al. 1994).

FIGURE 3 in Ambergris cololites of Pleistocene sperm whales from central Italy and description of the new ichnogenus and ichnospecies Ambergrisichnus alleronae

FIGURE 3. Simpler cololites (intestinelite group) from Bargiano section. 1., 7. Typical irregular elongated mass (CT02), produced by different helicoidal swirls, Bargiano section, in lateral view (1) and backside view (7). Arrows indicate the occurrence of longitudinal striae. 2. Mass (CT03) with bulges (rognons). 3. Holotype of Ambergrisichnus alleronae (CT01), showing converging striae in the left apex (arrow) and enlargement at the other apex. 4. Characteristic helicoidal arrangement and rings with different colours (CT04). 5-6. Side view (5) and front view (6) of rings (CT04), (modified after Baldanza et al., 2013). 8-9. Modern examples of ambergris masses with concentric rings and changes in colour, comparable to study specimens (arrow in 8 indicates a squid beak).

FIGURE 6 in Ambergris cololites of Pleistocene sperm whales from central Italy and description of the new ichnogenus and ichnospecies Ambergrisichnus alleronae

FIGURE 6. XRPD patterns (1) and mass changes in thermogravimetric analysis (2) of five cololite samples. Numbers of samples correspond to the structure of provenance (Figure 2.2).

FIGURE 4 in Ambergris cololites of Pleistocene sperm whales from central Italy and description of the new ichnogenus and ichnospecies Ambergrisichnus alleronae

FIGURE 4. Complex cololites (intestinelite group), Bargiano section. 1., 4. Hummock-like cololite (n 8 in Figure 2.2), 50 cm high and 80 cm wide, with a concave, irregular center and outer sub-circular to elliptical tunnels (1). Disaggregated portions (4) reveal both striae and concentric structure. 2. Hummock-like cololite (n 12 in Figure 2.2) formed by an accumulation of irregular, elongated slabs. 3. Complex hummock-like structure (n 15 in Figure 2.2) with irregular, meandering tunnels disposed at various levels. 5. Isolated linear cololite (n 25 in Figure 2.2), 20 cm in diameter, partially emerging from clay deposits. 6. Irregular, 60 cm long linear cololite (n 11 in Figure 2.2), showing spiral coiling at the right side.

FIGURE 2. Bargiano ichnofossils-bearing site. 1., 3 in Ambergris cololites of Pleistocene sperm whales from central Italy and description of the new ichnogenus and ichnospecies Ambergrisichnus alleronae

FIGURE 2. Bargiano ichnofossils-bearing site. 1., 3. Panoramic views of cololites in W-E (1) and N-S (3) directions. 2. Simplified topographic map with localization of cololites and whale remains; main bed's attitude is reported. 4-6. Details of whale bones. 4. Part of the skull, associated to shell beds. 5. Cervical fused vertebrae 2nd-7th (Ve). 6. Oyster shells (Oy) grown on a bone surface.

FIGURE 1. 1 in Ambergris cololites of Pleistocene sperm whales from central Italy and description of the new ichnogenus and ichnospecies Ambergrisichnus alleronae

FIGURE 1. 1. Simplified geological scheme for the study area and location of fossil sites (modified after Baldanza et al., 2011). 2. Bargiano and Montemoro sedimentological and biostratigraphic sections. Pictures (m1, m2) show the emergence of large cololites in the Montemoro section. Grain-size scale: C = Clay, S = Silt, VFS = Very Fine Sand, FS = Fine Sand. bmG = base of medium Gephyrocapsa event; blG = base of large Gephyrocapsa event (sensu Raffi, 2002).

FIGURE 7. 1, 3-8 in Ambergris cololites of Pleistocene sperm whales from central Italy and description of the new ichnogenus and ichnospecies Ambergrisichnus alleronae

FIGURE 7. 1, 3-8. Transmitted light photomicrographs of petrographic thin sections of the Bargiano cololites. 1. Interior of cololite (structure n 12) showing a micropeloidal matrix crossed by long chains of pyrite microgranules. 2. Beggiatoa specimens, sulphur large bacteria, single free-living filament with sulphur inclusion. 3. Detail of fossil Beggiatoa-like filaments from structure n 12. 4. Subspherical, red-brownish micromasses of pyrite (or sulphur), surrounded by a grey "halo" that inglobates all. To note the micropeloidal matrix. This structure may be comparable with large Thioploca cells. 5-7. Benthic foraminifera, partially and/or totally filled by bacteria-induced microcrystals of pyrite. 8. Pyrite framboids from structure n. 12. 9-10. SEM images of cololite internal fragments.The both surfaces are fresh, no acid attack was made. 9. Rosette structures made of dolomite microcrystals, and scattered single spherical cells referable to bacteria. In the centre, mica crystals with typical shape. 10. Dolomite crystals with well-developed orthorhombic shape (at central right), sparse spherical cells of bacteria, and a quartz crystal. Dolomite crystals (left) are aggregated to form a compact mass. 11-13. Bacteria-induced pyritization (sun-like pyrite discs). 11. Stereomicrophotograph of a large pyrite disc (about 1.5 cm in diameter). 12. SEM image of disc surface (particular), showing a large amount of spherical cells, progressively smaller form center to periphery. This arrangement is associated to bacteria colonies. 13. Small pyrite disc, yellow/orange, with elliptical to dumb bell shaped bacteria bodies arranged in a short chain.

FIGURE 5. Squid beaks from structure n 8 in Ambergris cololites of Pleistocene sperm whales from central Italy and description of the new ichnogenus and ichnospecies Ambergrisichnus alleronae

FIGURE 5. Squid beaks from structure n 8 (Figure 2.2). Part of a lower beak (1) and longitudinal section of a beak (2), emerging from the rough surface of rock sample. 3-4. Microscopic features of squid beaks inside cololites (structure n 12, Figure 2.2). Crystals and framboids of pyrite (4), scattered into the micropeloidal matrix with dolomite microcrystals are also visible (1 and 4 are modified after Baldanza et al., 2013).

Figure 15 in Killer sperm whale: a new basal physeteroid (Mammalia, Cetacea) from the Late Miocene of Italy

Figure 15. Hypothetical reconstruction of a Late Miocene marine scenario showing the killer sperm whale Zygophyseter attacking a kentriodontid (delphinoid). Painting by Giovanni Bianucci.

Figure 14 in Killer sperm whale: a new basal physeteroid (Mammalia, Cetacea) from the Late Miocene of Italy

Figure 14. Hypothetical reconstructions of Zygophyseter varolai gen. et sp. nov. A, head in lateral view with a parasagittal section of the nasal area based on Physeter macrocephalus (Heyning, 1989: 36); B, head in dorsal view with evidence for the circular supracranial basin of the skull; C, body in lateral view.

Figure 8 in Killer sperm whale: a new basal physeteroid (Mammalia, Cetacea) from the Late Miocene of Italy

Figure 8. Zygophyseter varolai gen. et sp. nov. Teeth of the holotype (MAUL 229/1). A, reconstruction of the original orientation of two isolated maxillary teeth; B, three mandibular teeth in place showing the gingival collar and the occlusal wear of the roots; C, D, two isolated maxillary teeth (arrows show the wear due to the opposite teeth).

Figure 9 in Killer sperm whale: a new basal physeteroid (Mammalia, Cetacea) from the Late Miocene of Italy

Figure 9. Zygophyseter varolai gen. et sp. nov. Mandible (A–E) and isolated upper teeth (F, G) of the holotype (MAUL 229/1). A, anterior view; B, ventral view of the anterior portion of the symphysis; C, dorsal view; D, lateral view; E, medial view of left posterior portion of right dentary; F, lateral or medial views; G, posterior views.