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Fig. 3 in Synonymy of the Scale Worm Hesperonoe urechis with Arctonoella sinagawaensis (Annelida: Polynoidae), Newly Recorded from the Seto Inland Sea, Western Japan, with Remarks on Symbiosis with the Spoon Worm Urechis unicinctus (Annelida: Thalassematidae)

Fig. 3. Arctonoella sinagawaensis, preserved specimens (A, C: NSMT-Pol 113479; B: NSMT-Pol 113481; D: NSMT-Pol 113480). A, Anterior end, dorsal view; B, anterior end, ventral view. C, posterior end, with last smallest elytron on segment 33 (white arrow), dorsal view; D, midbody with largest elytra, dorsal view. Abbreviations: ac, anal cirrus; dc, dorsal cirrus; la, lateral antenna; ma, median antenna; pa, palp; pr, proboscis; tc, tentacular cirrus; vbc, ventral buccal cirrus; 2–4, segments 2–4. Scale bars: 1 mm.

Fig. 2. Arctonoella sinagawaensis. A–D in Synonymy of the Scale Worm Hesperonoe urechis with Arctonoella sinagawaensis (Annelida: Polynoidae), Newly Recorded from the Seto Inland Sea, Western Japan, with Remarks on Symbiosis with the Spoon Worm Urechis unicinctus (Annelida: Thalassematidae)

Fig. 2. Arctonoella sinagawaensis. A–D, Living specimens (A, B: NSMT-Pol 113479; C, D: NSMT-Pol 113482) associated with Urechis unicinctus; E, preserved specimen (NSMT-Pol 113482). A, Ventral view; B, lateral view, tips of dorsal cirri in contact with host body (black arrows); C, dorsal view of a symbiont on its host (white arrow), just after being collected; D, dorsal view of symbiont in C, detached from its host; E, dorsal view. Scale bars: A, B, 10 mm; D, E, 5 mm.

Fig. 7 in Synonymy of the Scale Worm Hesperonoe urechis with Arctonoella sinagawaensis (Annelida: Polynoidae), Newly Recorded from the Seto Inland Sea, Western Japan, with Remarks on Symbiosis with the Spoon Worm Urechis unicinctus (Annelida: Thalassematidae)

Fig. 7. Reevaluation of numbers of pairs of elytra in photographs of living specimens (dorsal view) shown in previous studies. A, Holotype of Hesperonoe urechis (71 mm BL), modified from Marin and Antokhina (2020: fig. 8c); B, non-type specimen of H. urechis, modified from Marin and Antokhina (2020: figs 1e, 8a) and Buzhinskaja (2013: fig. E; shown as Hesperonoe sp.). 1–16: number of left elytra from anterior to posterior ends; brackets indicate elytron absent. Scale bar: 10 mm.

Fig. 1 in Synonymy of the Scale Worm Hesperonoe urechis with Arctonoella sinagawaensis (Annelida: Polynoidae), Newly Recorded from the Seto Inland Sea, Western Japan, with Remarks on Symbiosis with the Spoon Worm Urechis unicinctus (Annelida: Thalassematidae)

Fig. 1. Distribution of Arctonoella sinagawaensis. A, Japan and neighboring countries; B, Seto Inland Sea (western Japan). Closed circles, present study; open circles, previous studies. 1, mouth of Saba-gawa River, Yamaguchi Prefecture; 2, Mukaishima Island, Onomichi-shi, Hiroshima Prefecture; 3, Takasu-higata, Kurashikishi, Okayama Prefecture; a, Shinagawa, Tokyo Bay (type locality; Izuka 1912); b, Peter the Great Bay (Marin and Antokhina 2020); c, Possjet Bay (Buzhinskaja 1967; Marin and Antokhina 2020); d, Chefoo Bay, Yellow Sea (Fauvel 1933; Uschakov 1982).

Fig. 6 in Synonymy of the Scale Worm Hesperonoe urechis with Arctonoella sinagawaensis (Annelida: Polynoidae), Newly Recorded from the Seto Inland Sea, Western Japan, with Remarks on Symbiosis with the Spoon Worm Urechis unicinctus (Annelida: Thalassematidae)

Fig. 6. Arctonoella sinagawaensis, distal part of chaetae in chaetiger 14, preserved specimen (NSMT-Pol 113479). A, Superior notochaeta; B, inferior notochaeta; C, D, supra-acicular neurochaeta; E, infra-acicular neurochaeta. Scale bars: 0.1 mm.

Figure 25 in Identification of fossil worm tubes from Phanerozoic hydrothermal vents and cold seeps

Figure 25. Results of confocal laser-scanning microscopy (CLSM) of recently mineralized and ancient fossil annelid tubes (see online edition for colour version). Tubes are imaged in auto-fluorescence mode, where areas of fluorescence likely reflect the presence of organic matter. A, detail of mineralized Escarpia southwardae (Siboglinidae) tube transverse section. B, fossil tube from Upper Waiau River, New Zealand (UWT3-4), detail of transverse section. C, fossil tube from West Fork Satsop River, Washington State, USA (WFSR 1A), detail of transverse section. D, fossil tubes from Bexhaven, New Zealand (BXG), detail of two near-transverse sections. Scale bars: A = 100 µm; B–D = 200 µm.

Figure 24 in Identification of fossil worm tubes from Phanerozoic hydrothermal vents and cold seeps

Figure 24. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy spectra of the organic tubes of vent and seep annelids. Spectra are offset on the absorbance axis, and key spectral absorbance peaks are labelled with the types of chemical bonds they represent: -NH, nitrogenhydrogen; -CH, carbon-hydrogen; -OH, oxygen-hydrogen. The regions of the tube analysed are as follows: Tevnia jerichonana (anterior, inner tube wall); Zenkevitchiana longissimi (middle, outer tube wall); Lamellibrachia anaximandri (posterior, outer tube wall); Sclerolinum contortum (anterior, outer tube wall); Alvinella sp. (middle); Spiochaetopterus izuensis (middle, outer tube wall).

Figure 23. Strict consensus cladograms constructed using a in Identification of fossil worm tubes from Phanerozoic hydrothermal vents and cold seeps

Figure 23. Strict consensus cladograms constructed using a total of 64 modern and fossil annelid taxa and 48 mostly morphological tube characters. Analyses were performed using implied character weighting, with the concavity constant set as default (k = 3; A), and also set to downweight homoplastic characters less (k = 4; B). Numbers on nodes represent groups present/contradicted support values. Modern taxa are coloured according to taxonomic groups; fossil taxa are in grey. A, consensus of 271 most parsimonious trees (best score = 15.387, consistency index = 0.195, retention index = 0.264); B, consensus of 60 most parsimonious trees (best score = 13.568, consistency index = 0.232, retention index = 0.569). Symbols/colours indicate taxonomic affinities.

Figure 21 in Identification of fossil worm tubes from Phanerozoic hydrothermal vents and cold seeps

Figure 21. Principal coordinate analysis plot of modern and fossil annelid tubes, based on the 48 characters scored for this study. Fossils (grey crosses): 1. Yamankasia rifeia; 2, Eoalvinellodes annulatus; 3, 'Sibay tubes'; 4, Tevidestus serriformis; 5, 'Figueroa tubes'; 6, 'Sassenfjorden area tubes'; 7, 'Cold Fork Cottonwood Creek tubes'; 8, 'Prince Patrick tubes'; 9, 'Ellef Ringnes tubes'; 10, 'Troodos attached tubes'; 11, 'Troodos wrinkled tubes'; 12, 'Troodos collared tubes'; 13, 'Okukinenbetsu yellow tubes'; 14, 'Okukinenbetsu brown tubes'; 15, 'Omagari tubes'; 16, 'Canyon River tubes'; 17, 'Murdock Creek tubes'; 18, 'West Fork Satsop River tubes'; 19, Serpulidae sp., 'Bexhaven'; 20, 'Upper Waiau River tubes'; 21, 'Rocky Knob tubes'. Modern tubes: Chaetopteridae (orange dots): 22, Chaetopterus cf. variopedatus; 23, Chaetopteridae id83; 24, Phyllochaetopterus polus; 25, P. gigas; 26, P. claparedii; 27, P. prolifica; 28, P. socialis; 29, Spiochetopterus izuensis; 30, S. sagamiensis; 31, S. costarum; 32, S. typicus; 33, Mesochaetopterus taylori. Siboglinidae, frenulata (dark blue filled triangles): 34, Galathealinum arcticum; 35, Lamellisabella denticulata; 36, Oligobrachia gracilis; 37, Polybrachia canadensis; 38, Siboglinum ekmani; 39, S. lacteum; 40, Siphonobrachia lauensis; 41, Unibrachium colombianum; 42, Zenkevitchiana longissima; 43. Siboglinidae, Sclerolinum (light blue outline triangle): S. contortum; Siboglinidae, vestimentiferans (light purple filled inverted triangles): 44, Alaysia spiralis; 45, Arcovestia ivanovi; 46, Escarpia southwardae; 47, Lamellibrachia anaximandri; 48, Paraescarpia echinospica; 49, Ridgeia piscesae; 50, Riftia pachyptila; 51, Tevnia jerichonana; 52, Seepiophila jonesi; Siboglinidae, vestimentiferan roots (dark purple outline inverted triangles): 53, E. southwardae root; 54, L. anaximandri root; 55, S. jonesi root; 56, P. echinospica root; Alvinellidae (maroon outline diamond): 57, Alvinella sp.; Ampharetidae (fuchsia outline rhombus): 58, Glyphanostomum sp.; Serpulidae (lime filled squares): 59, Serpulidae sp. JCR; 60, Serpula vermicularis; 61, Vermiliopsis infundibulum; Sabellidae (yellow outline squares): 62, Sabella pavonina; 63, Megalomma vesiculosum; Oweniidae (dark green outline dot): 64. Owenia fusiformis.

Figure 19 in Identification of fossil worm tubes from Phanerozoic hydrothermal vents and cold seeps

Figure 19. Yamankasia rifeia, Silurian, Yaman Kasy, Russia. A, NHMUK VF84, large tube in hand specimen. B, NHMUK VF97, cast of tube exhibiting fold. C, NHMUK VF78, pyritized fibres or filamentous micro-organisms preserved on the outside of a tube. D, NHMUK VF78, fine longitudinal wrinkles preserved on outer tube surface. E, NHMUK OR6468a, tube in transverse section with thick, multi-layered wall. F, NHMUK OR6468b, tube wall in transverse section preserved as several layers. G, UL 61633, detail of tube transverse section showing colloform pyrite interpreted as having grown on the outside of the tube. Scale bars: A = 10 mm; B = 5 mm; C = 500 µm; D = 3 mm; E = 1.5 mm; F, G = 500 µm.

Figure 22 in Identification of fossil worm tubes from Phanerozoic hydrothermal vents and cold seeps

Figure 22. Strict consensus cladogram of the three most parsimonious trees of tubes built by a total of 43 modern annelid taxa (best score = 14.344, consistency index = 0.308, retention index = 0.629). The analysis was based on the 48 mostly morphological tube characters and was performed using implied character weighting (k = 3). Numbers on nodes represent groups present/contradicted support values. Symbols/colours indicate taxonomic affinities.

Figure 18 in Identification of fossil worm tubes from Phanerozoic hydrothermal vents and cold seeps

Figure 18. Eoalvinellodes annulatus, Silurian, Yaman Kasy, Russia. A–C, NHMUK OR1388a, NHMUK VF52 and NHMUK VF53, respectively, hand specimens of gently curving tubes with folded fabric-like tube wall texture. D, E, UL YKB1, transverse sections of tubes showing thick walls with thick, possibly multi-layered walls. F, UL YKB1, detail of tube wall in transverse section showing preservation by colloform pyrite many layers thick. Scale bars: A, B = 2 mm; C = 1 mm; D, E = 500 µm; F = 100 µm.

Figure 16. A–C in Identification of fossil worm tubes from Phanerozoic hydrothermal vents and cold seeps

Figure 16. A–C, Tevidestus serriformis tubes, Devonian, Sibay, Russia, NHMUK VF71; A, tube fragment exhibiting numerous short collars; B, C, detail of tube wall showing small collars and meshwork of fibres. D, Phyllochaetopterus prolifica outer tube wall detail for comparison, NHMUK 1915.5.1.4-6. Scale bars: A = 4 mm; B, C = 1 mm; D = 10 µm.

Figure 17 in Identification of fossil worm tubes from Phanerozoic hydrothermal vents and cold seeps

Figure 17. 'Sibay tubes', NHMUK VF71, Devonian, Sibay, Russia. A, hand specimen showing cluster of tubes in various orientations. B, detail of tube wall showing smooth appearance. C, detail of the walls of three adjacent tubes in transverse section; walls appear thick and multi-layered. D, detail of framboidal pyrite preserving tube walls. Scale bars: A = 3 mm; B = 1 mm; C = 500 µm; D = 10 µm.

Figure 14 in Identification of fossil worm tubes from Phanerozoic hydrothermal vents and cold seeps

Figure 14. 'Sassenfjorden area tubes', Volgian–Ryazanian, Svalbard. A–C, hand specimens of tubes; A, Svalbard 2007-03, long tube with poorly preserved walls; B, PMO 2009-01, smooth-walled tube possibly with a small collar; C, PMO 2009-03, tube with possible longitudinal wrinkles. D, E, 171.002D, near-transverse sections of tubes with thick, neatly-multi-layered walls. F, 170.996, detail from transverse section of a tube where the tube exhibits curving layers that have separated. G, 171.027, tube with poorly preserved walls. Scale bars: A = 10 mm; B = 2 mm; C = 5 mm; D, E = 300 µm; F = 100 µm; G = 200 µm.

Figure 13 in Identification of fossil worm tubes from Phanerozoic hydrothermal vents and cold seeps

Figure 13. 'Wilbur Springs tubes', WS-45, Hauterivian, California, USA. A, smooth-walled, tapering tube in hand specimen. B, transverse section of tube with replaced wall that may have been originally calcareous in composition. C–E, tube walls in near-transverse section with poorly preserved walls that may have originally been organic in composition. Scale bars: A = 10 mm; B = 500 µm; C, E = 200 µm; D = 400 µm.

Figure 20 in Identification of fossil worm tubes from Phanerozoic hydrothermal vents and cold seeps

Figure 20. Morphology of tubes made by annelid lineages occurring at modern hydrothermal vents and cold seeps (see Supplementary Table S3 for details). A, disorganized tubes of Alvinella spp. (Alvinellidae). B, agglutinated tube of Mesochaetopterus taylori (Chaetopteridae). C, agglutinated Sabellidae tube. D, branched tube of Phyllochaetopterus claparedii (Chaetopteridae). E, segmented tubes of Spiochaetopterus costarum (Chaetopteridae). F, Phyllochaetopterus polus (Chaetopteridae) tubes bearing short collars and wrinkled-fabric ornamentation. G, collared Serpulidae tubes (likely Serpula narconensis). H, collared tubes of Serpula vermicularis (Serpulidae). I, large tube of the vestimentiferan Riftia pachyptila (Siboglinidae). J, collared, ornamented tube of the vestimentiferan Ridgeia piscesae (Siboglinidae). K, smooth tube of the vestimentiferan Escarpia southwardae (Siboglinidae). L, collared tubes of the frenulate Polybrachia canadensis (Siboglinidae). M, hard tubes of the frenulate Siphonobrachia lauensis (Siboglinidae). N, Glyphanostomum tube. O, detail of the wall of an Alvinella spp. tube in transverse section. P, detail of the wall of an M. taylori tube in transverse section. Q, detail of the wall of a Megalomma vesiculosum (Sabellidae) tube in transverse section. R, detail of the wall of a Serpulidae tube in transverse section. S, T, detail of the wall of a Spiochaetopterus typicus (Chaetopteridae) tube; S, transverse section; T, same tube in longitudinal section. U, V, detail of the wall of a P. polus tube; U, transverse section; V, same tube in longitudinal section. W, X, E. southwardae tube; W, detail of the anterior tube wall in transverse section; X, transverse section of the posterior tube wall. Y, Z, A', frenulate Unibrachium colombianum (Siboglinidae) tube; Y, transverse section of the very anterior portion of the tube; Z, longitudinal section of the ringed middle region of the same tube; A', transverse section of the middle tube region. Scale bars: A, B, D, E, F, H, I, J, M = 10 mm; G = 3 mm; C, L = 5 mm; K = 20 mm; N = 1 mm; O = 200 µm; P, S, U, V = 500 µm; Q, Y = 300 µm; R = 50 µm; T, W, Z, A' = 200 µm; X = 125 µm.

Figure 12 in Identification of fossil worm tubes from Phanerozoic hydrothermal vents and cold seeps

Figure 12. 'Cold Fork Cottonwood Creek tubes', Hauterivian, California, USA. A, CFC-G, tubes in hand specimen, walls largely obscured by rock matrix. B, CFCC-10-02, tube with some visible wall which appears smooth. C, CC-F8, transverse section of a tube showing the hazy nature of the walls. D, CFCC-2A, detail of tube wall in transverse section showing delaminated, curving tube layers. E, CC-F8, detail of tube wall in transverse section showing multi-layered nature. Scale bars: A = 10 mm; B = 5 mm; C, D = 100 µm; E = 50 µm.

Figure 11. Tubes from the Albian Christopher Formation, Canada. A, B, D, E in Identification of fossil worm tubes from Phanerozoic hydrothermal vents and cold seeps

Figure 11. Tubes from the Albian Christopher Formation, Canada. A, B, D, E, 'Ellef Ringnes tubes'; A, NRC C-581891 QQA-10-22, tubes in hand specimen; B, NRC C-581891 QQA-10-22, sections of tubes; D, NRC C-541891CPPL, detail of a transverse section of a tube showing thick, multi-layered tube walls, with some possible misaligned torn fibres (white arrow); E, NRC C-541891CPPL, detail of a transverse section of a tube showing a break in the tube wall where it appears broken fibres have curved slightly and misaligned (white arrow). C, F, G, 'Prince Patrick tubes'; C, NRC C-453952 1–4, tubes in hand specimen; F, NRC C-453961PPL, transverse section of a tube exhibiting thick, multi-layered tube walls; G, NRC C-453989PPL, longitudinal section of a tube with thinner walls containing round pellets. Scale bars: A–C = 10 mm; D, F, G = 1 mm; E = 500 µm.

Figure 10 in Identification of fossil worm tubes from Phanerozoic hydrothermal vents and cold seeps

Figure 10. Tubes from the Turonian of Cyprus. A–C, 'Troodos collared tubes'; A, B, Kambia 4061 and Memi 212b2, respectively, sinuous worm tubes with collars; C, Kambia 401b, worm tube with collar attached at an oblique angle. D, E, 'Troodos wrinkled tubes', Kapedhes 2101 and 204b, respectively, worm tubes bearing longitudinal and transverse wrinkles. F, G, 'Troodos attached tubes', Memi 2021 and Kinousa 2023, respectively, sinuous tubes that appear attached to a surface, tubes in F bearing fine parallel transverse wrinkles. Scale bars: A–D, F, G = 1 mm; E = 0. 5 mm.