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Figure 1. A in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 1. A pair of articulating elements with a single joint axis, set up so that the axis runs perpendicular to the viewing plane, and is perceived as a point – the centre of rotation (CR). The proximal element is fixed and has a single marker O, defining the origin of an arbitrary coordinate system. The distal element is mobile and bears two markers A and B, denoted A′ and B′ after a rotation of magnitude Q. The positions of the markers before and after angulation in the arbitrary coordinate system can be used to determine the position vector c of the CR, and the magnitude of rotation Q. See text for details.

Figure 26 in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 26. Left lateral view of Anhanguera in a possible landing configuration. The body is pitched up by 20°, the femur is supinated by 30° and depressed by 30°, and the pteroid is depressed by 30°. The geometric angle of attack of the wing section is 40°.

Figure 27 in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 27. Dorsal (A), anterior (B), and left lateral (C) views of Anhanguera in a semi-erect quadrupedal stance. The shoulder and intersyncarpal joints are in their close-packed positions, the carpometacarpal joints are supinated, and the elbow, radioulnocarpal, knuckle, and carpopteroid joints are maximally flexed. The femora are depressed by 60°. Scale bar: 500 mm.

Figure 9. A in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 9. A, reconstructed articular surfaces of the right radioulnocarpal joint of Coloborhynchus robustus. Elements are oriented as in Fig. 7: radius and ulna in lateral view, and proximal syncarpal in medial view. Scale bar: 50 mm. B, diagrammatic representation of (A), showing contact areas in the close-packed position, the joint axis, and the conjunct rotation axis. C, right radius, ulna, syncarpals, and wing metacarpal in their respective close-packed positions in posterodorsal aspect, viewed along the radioulnocarpal joint axis. For a list of anatomical/arthrological abbreviations, see Appendix 1.

Figure 23 in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 23. Methods of changing the angle of attack of the inner wing. A, left lateral view of Anhanguera configured as in Fig. 18. The broken line indicates the chord line. The angle of attack of the section is zero. B, as in (A), but with the left leg depressed at the hip by 30°. The geometric angle of attack a is indicated. C, as in (A), but with the leg supinated at the hip by 30°. The leg movements shown in (B) and (C) increase both the angle of attack and the camber of the inner wing.

Figure 24 in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 24. Effects of pteroid depression. A, left lateral view of Anhanguera as in Fig. 23. B, as in (A), but with the left pteroid depressed by 30°. The camber is increased and the angle of attack, a, is reduced by this movement.

Figure 21. A in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 21. A, typical plots of pitching moment M against angle of attack a (measured with respect to the zero-lift angle of attack) for stable and unstable aircraft. Both aircraft are shown balancing at the same equilibrium angle of attack, at which point the pitching moment is zero. B, the effect of raising the elevators (1) on the longitudinal balance of a stable aircraft: the pitching moment is increased, as is the equilibrium angle of attack, so the aircraft pitches up (2) until equilibrium is restored. C, the effect of raising the elevators (1) on the longitudinal balance of an unstable aircraft: the pitching moment is increased, but the equilibrium angle of attack is reduced, so the aircraft now pitches up away from equilibrium (2).

Figure 15. A in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 15. A, reconstructed articular surfaces of the right carpometacarpal joint of Coloborhynchus robustus. Elements are oriented as in Fig. 7: distal syncarpal in lateral view and wing metacarpal in medial view. Scale bar: 50 mm. B, diagrammatic representation of (A), showing contact areas in the close-packed position and the joint axis. For a list of anatomical/arthrological abbreviations, see Appendix 1.

Figure 22 in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 22. Increasing the equilibrium angle of attack of an unstable aircraft can be brought about by decreasing the derivative dM/da, where M is the pitching moment and a is the angle of attack, by sweeping the wings back (A), or by decreasing the zero-lift pitching moment M0, by depressing the pteroids for example (B). These adjustments can theoretically be used in response to an unstable nose-up pitch (1), thus establishing a new equilibrium (2).

Figure 19. A in Three-dimensional geometry of a pterosaur wing skeleton, and its implications for aerial and terrestrial locomotion

Figure 19. A, Stable but unbalanced wing profile, with the centre of gravity (c.g.) situated ahead of the mean aerodynamic centre (m.a.c.). B, stable and balanced configuration, with a small tailplane set at a negative incidence with respect to the main wing.

Fig. 48 in Comparative Morphology Of The Internal Nasal Skeleton Of Adult Marsupials Based On X-Ray Computed Tomography

Fig. 48. Coronal CT images showing the dorsoventral extent of caudal portion of lateral recess (char. 23). (A) lateral recess does not extend to nasal cavity floor (char. 23.0), Monodelphis domestica, C158 (TMM M-7599), scale bar equals 1 mm; (B) lateral recess extends to the floor of the nasal cavity (ch. 23.1), Petauroides volans, C405 (AMNH 150055), scale bar equals 5 mm. Abbreviations: Endo, endoturbinal; ONS, ossified nasal septum.

Fig. 47. Character 18 in Comparative Morphology Of The Internal Nasal Skeleton Of Adult Marsupials Based On X-Ray Computed Tomography

Fig. 47. Character 18 (number of endoturbinals) optimized on Meredith et al. (2009) topology. Character state 18.0 is the presence of two endoturbinals; 18.1 is the presence of three endoturbinals; 18.2 is the presence of four endoturbinals; 18.3 is the presence of five endoturbinals; 18.4 is the presence of six endoturbinals; 18.5 is the presence of seven endoturbinals; 18.6 is the presence of more than seven endoturbinals. States for this character are illustrated in figure 18.

Fig. 40 in Comparative Morphology Of The Internal Nasal Skeleton Of Adult Marsupials Based On X-Ray Computed Tomography

Fig. 40. Coronal CT images showing the tube like morphology of the ectoturbinals (char. 21). (A) tube like morphology absent (char. 21.0), Didelphis virginiana, C464 (TMM M-2517); (B) ectoturbinals are tube like in shape (char. 21.1), Phascolarctos cinereus, C273 (TMM M-2946). Both scale bars equal 5 mm. Abbreviations: Ecto, ectoturbinal; Endo, endoturbinal; NPM, nasopharyngeal meatus; ONS, ossified nasal septum; SER, sphenethmoid recess.

Fig. 49 in Comparative Morphology Of The Internal Nasal Skeleton Of Adult Marsupials Based On X-Ray Computed Tomography

Fig. 49. Coronal CT images showing the caudal extent of lateral recess (char. 24). (A) rostral in the snout, maxilloturbinal extends caudal to lateral recess (char. 24.0), Dromiciops gliroides, C230 (FMNH 127463), scale bar equals 1 mm; (B) lateral recess extends about even with the caudal terminus of the maxilloturbinal (char. 24.1), Dasyurus hallucatus, C286 (TMM M-6921), scale bar equals 5 mm; (C) lateral recess extends caudal to the maxilloturbinal (char. 24.2), Isoodon macrourus, C360 (TMM M-6922), scale bar equals 5 mm. Abbreviations: Ecto, ectoturbinal; Endo, endoturbinal; ONS, ossified nasal septum; PTL, posterior transverse lamina.

Fig. 39 in Comparative Morphology Of The Internal Nasal Skeleton Of Adult Marsupials Based On X-Ray Computed Tomography

Fig. 39. Coronal CT images showing the presence or absence of the rostral portion of endoturbinal I (char. 16). (A) rostral portion present (char. 16.0), Didelphis virginiana, C270 (TMM M-2517); (B) rostral portion absent (char. 16.1), Phascolarctos cinereus, C129 (TMM M-2946). Both scale bars equal 5 mm. Abbreviations: Endo, endoturbinal; ONS, ossified nasal septum.

Fig. 38 in Comparative Morphology Of The Internal Nasal Skeleton Of Adult Marsupials Based On X-Ray Computed Tomography

Fig. 38. Coronal CT images showing the morphology of the caudalmost portion of the maxilloturbinal in marsupials (char. 2). (A) caudal maxilloturbinal is simple in morphology and is attached to the nasal cavity wall or floor (char. 2.0), Isoodon macrourus, C314 (TMM M-6922); (B) caudalmost portion of maxilloturbinal becomes an enclosed tube that tapirs into a cone that is unattached to the nasal cavity (char. 2.1), Phascolarctos cinereus, C251 (TMM M-2946). Both scale bars equal 5 mm. Abbreviations: Endo, endoturbinal; ONS, ossified nasal septum.

Fig. 35 in Comparative Morphology Of The Internal Nasal Skeleton Of Adult Marsupials Based On X-Ray Computed Tomography

Fig. 35. Coronal CT images showing the presence or absence of pneumaticity in the caudal nasoturbinal (char. 8). (A) pneumaticity is absent (char. 8.0), Caenolestes fuliginosus, C400 (KU 124015), scale bar equals 1 mm; (B) pneumaticity is present (char. 8.1), Potorous tridactylus, C386 (AMNH 65337), scale bar equals 5 mm. Abbreviations: Ecto, ectoturbinal; Endo, endoturbinal; ONS, ossified nasal septum.

Fig. 34 in Comparative Morphology Of The Internal Nasal Skeleton Of Adult Marsupials Based On X-Ray Computed Tomography

Fig. 34. Coronal CT images showing the presence or absence of a paraseptal shelf of the vomer (char 28). (A) shelf present (char. 28.0), Caenolestes fuliginosus, C389 (KU 124015), scale bar equals 1 mm; (B) shelf absent (char. 28.1), Pseudocheirus occidentalis, C273 (TMM M-847), scale bar equals 5 mm. Abbreviations: Ecto, ectoturbinal; Endo, endoturbinal; ONS, ossified nasal septum; PSV, paraseptal shelf of vomer; SER, sphenethmoid recess.

Fig. 45. Character 19 in Comparative Morphology Of The Internal Nasal Skeleton Of Adult Marsupials Based On X-Ray Computed Tomography

Fig. 45. Character 19 (number of ectoturbinals) optimized on Meredith et al. (2009) topology. Character state 19.0 is the presence of one ectoturbinal; 19.1 is the presence of two ectoturbinals; 19.2 is the presence of three ectoturbinals; 19.3 is the presence of four ectoturbinals (this state is not shown on this tree). States for this character are illustrated in figure 21. Abbreviation: NA, not applicable.

Fig. 36 in Comparative Morphology Of The Internal Nasal Skeleton Of Adult Marsupials Based On X-Ray Computed Tomography

Fig. 36. Coronal CT images showing the morphology of the ventral portion of ossified nasal septum (char. 30). (A) ventral portion is straight or only with slight bends or convolutions (char. 30.0), Wallabia bicolor, C430 (TMM M-4169); (B) ventral portion is very convoluted (char. 30.1), Potorous tridactylus, C495 (AMNH 65337). Both scale bars equal 5 mm. Abbreviations: Ecto, ectoturbinal; Endo, endoturbinal; NPM, nasopharyngeal meatus; ONS, ossified nasal septum; SER, sphenethmoid recess.