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Figure 2 in Comparative ossification and development of the skull in palaeognathous birds (Aves: Palaeognathae)

Figure 2. Palatal view of selected palaeognath embryos. A, B, Struthio camelus (modified from Parker, 1866). C, Rhea americana, stage 37 (day 17 of incubation, RM 7219). D, Rhea americana (modified from Müller, 1963). E, Dromaius novaehollandiae, stage 37 (day 28 of incubation, RM 8026). F, Eudromia elegans, day 14 of incubation (YPM 112524). Scale bars = 5 mm. Abbreviations: bo, basioccipital; exo, exoccipital; mx, maxilla; pal, palatine; pmx, premaxilla; psl, parasphenoid lamina; psr, parasphenoid rostrum; pt, pterygoid; q, quadrate; v, vomer.

Figures 16, 17 in Taxonomy and molecular phylogeny of the Phortica hani species complex (Diptera: Drosophilidae)

Figures 16, 17. Phortica hirtotibia Cao & Chen sp. nov., male. 16, epandrium, surstylus, and cercus; 17, hypandrium, gonopods, paramere, aedeagus, and aedeagal apodeme. For abbreviations see Figs 14 and 15. Scale bars = 0.1 mm.

Figures 1–6 in Taxonomy and molecular phylogeny of the Phortica hani species complex (Diptera: Drosophilidae)

Figures 1–6. Hindlegs of male. For details of the parts denoted by letters a–e see the descriptions of individual species.

Figures 13–15 in Taxonomy and molecular phylogeny of the Phortica hani species complex (Diptera: Drosophilidae)

Figures 13–15. Phortica floccipes Cao & Chen sp. nov., male. 13, arista; 14, epandrium (epand), surstylus (sur), cercus (cerc), and tenth sternite (st 10) (lateral view); 15, hypandrium (hypd), gonopods (gon), paramere (pm), aedeagus (aed), and aedeagal apodeme (aed a) (lateral view). Scale bars = 0.1 mm.

Figures 18, 19 in Taxonomy and molecular phylogeny of the Phortica hani species complex (Diptera: Drosophilidae)

Figures 18, 19. Phortica pinguiseta Cao & Chen sp. nov., male. 18, epandrium, surstylus, and cercus; 19, hypandrium, gonopods, paramere, aedeagus, and aedeagal apodeme. For abbreviations see Figs 14 and 15. Scale bars = 0.1 mm.

Figures 20, 21 in Taxonomy and molecular phylogeny of the Phortica hani species complex (Diptera: Drosophilidae)

Figures 20, 21. Phortica panda Cao & Chen sp. nov., male. 20, epandrium, surstylus, and cercus; 21, hypandrium, gonopods, paramere, aedeagus, and aedeagal apodeme. For abbreviations see Figs 14 and 15. Scale bars = 0.1 mm.

Figure 22. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 22. A, origins and insertions of mm. intercristales (top, light-fill shapes), mm. intertransversarii (dark-fill shapes) and an interpretation of dorsal, rib head origins (large light-filled shapes) of m. iliocostalis capitis, of Tyrannosaurus rex (AMNH 5027). B, moment arms for lateroflexion by mm. intertransversarii on C6–C8 of Tyrannosaurus rex (BHI 3033, ventral view).

Figure 23. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 23. A, topological appearance of m. rectus capitis ventralis (anterior muscles) and m. iliocostalis cervicis (posteroventrally originating muscles) on anterior axial skeleton of Tyrannosaurus rex (BHI 3033), ventral view. The moment arm for lateral flexion by m. iliocostalis cervicis is superimposed. B, m. r.c.v.: origins of m. rectus capitis ventralis from ventral spinous processes of Tyrannosaurus rex (BHI 3033) with arrow showing course of the muscle. m. il. cerv.: origin from ventral centra and insertions onto ventral fascia of cervical ribs of m. iliocostalis cervicis, with arrow showing course of the muscle. C, insertion of m. rectus capitis ventralis onto basioccipital of Daspletosaurus torosus (CMN 8506; the specimen is incomplete and the image partly mirrored), showing moment arms. Because the tyrannosaurid occiput slopes anteroventrally, the ventroflexion moment arm is somewhat longer than depicted in this view. D, strength of functional inference for head ventroflexion by m. rectus capitis ventralis in Tyrannosaurus rex. E, strength of functional inference for neck lateroflexion by m. iliocostalis cervicis of Tyrannosaurus rex.

Figure 20. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 20. A, origin scar of m. splenius capitis from C2 of Tyrannosaurus rex (BHI 3033), in anterodorsal view. B, area of possible insertions of m. splenius capitis (medial part) on the occiput of Daspletosaurus torosus (CMN 8506; the specimen is incomplete and the image partly mirrored), with moment arms shown for dorsiflexion and lateroflexion. C, insertions of m. longus colli dorsalis/m. transversospinalis cervicis onto posterior and dorsal surfaces of epipophyses, from C2 to C5. The most prominent insertion is a posteriorly concave scar on the C2 epipophysis. D, centres of rotation (white circles) and moment arms (lines) for insertions of m. longus colli dorsalis/m. transversospinalis cervicis, on cervical vertebrae of Tyrannosaurus rex (BHI 3033). Centres of rotation are estimated to be at positions similar to those Selbie, Thomson & Richmond (1993) determined for intervertebral flexion in cats.

Figure 21. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 21. A, origin scars of m. longissimus capitis superficialis (C7–D1 parapophyses) and m. longissimus capitis profundus (C6–C3 parapophyses) of Tyrannosaurus rex (AMNH 5027). B, short moment arm of m. longissimus capitis superficialis for neck plus head dorsiflexion. C, paroccipital process insertions and moment arms of m. longissimus capitis superficialis on Daspletosaurus torosus (CMN 8506). D, basioccipital insertions and moment arms of m. longissimus capitis profundus on Daspletosaurus torosus (CMN 8506; the specimen is incomplete and the images are partly mirrored).

Figure 16 in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 16. Schematic diagram of major neck muscles of Tyrannosaurus rex in dorsal view. A–C represent successively deeper layers, and other conventions are as in Figure 15. M. complexus inserts dorsally on the squamosal, and m. iliocostalis capitis inserts along the ventral edge of the paroccipital process. M. longissimus capitis superficialis inserts between these on the lateral edge of the paroccipital process. In C a probable lateral part of m. spinalis capitis is signified by a '?'.

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Figure 5 in Erratum Systematics of the genera of Bodotriidae (Crustacea: Cumacea)

Figure 5. Geographical distribution of genera of the family Bodotriidae. Tree topology corresponds to consensus tree from parsimony analysis (see Fig. 2). Rows of matrix above tree represent a summarized list of geographical areas (oceans, seas or coasts) where bodotriids are well represented. Filled squares indicate presence of the genus in the area.

Figure 11. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 11. A, origins (dark shapes) and insertions (lighter outlined shapes) of mm. intertransversarii aponeuroses on posterior cervical vertebrae of Struthio camelus. Origins are from anterior faces of lateral tubercles, and insertions are onto posterior projections of the lateral tubercles. Arrows represent lines of action whereby insertions are drawn towards the origins to effect intervertebral lateroflexion. B, origins (dark) and insertions (lighter) of mm. inclusii on posterior cervical vertebrae of Struthio camelus. Origins are from anterior faces of the costal processes, and insertions are onto the lateral and dorsolateral tubercles. Arrows represent lines of action whereby insertions are drawn towards the origins. C, origins (dark-filled shapes) and insertions (light-filled shapes) of lateral portions of mm. intertransversarii in Caiman crocodylus. Arrows represent lines of action from origin to insertion, by which the muscles would lateroflex the anterior vertebra of each pair relative to the posterior one.

Figure 9. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 9. A, insertions of (dark grey) m. longus colli dorsalis pars cranialis onto anterior cervical epipophyses of Haliaeetus leucocephalus. B, schematic origin (light grey) of m. longus colli dorsalis pars cranialis, from cervicodorsal region of Struthio camelus. C, schematic origins (dark grey) of m. longus colli dorsalis pars cranialis from epipophyses (processes dorsales) of posterior cervicals in Struthio camelus. Slips from these origins coalasce with the main belly of the muscle, as demarcated by the light-shaded lines. The main belly of the muscle continues dorsally. D, schematic origin and insertions of m. longus colli dorsalis pars caudalis. This muscle subsystem originates from the cervicodorsal region and sends multiple bellies to insert on posterior cervical epipophyses. E, origins of m. longissimus cervicis/m interarticulares of Caiman crocodylus. The gradient-filled slips represent association of origins with the fascia surrounding the muscles. F, anteriormost insertions (dark grey) of m. longissimus cervicis/m. interarticulares, and m. transversospinalis cervicis, of Caiman crocodylus.

Figure 10. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 10. A, several muscles of Pelicanus occidentalis, disseted in lateral view. Abbreviations are as in the main text. Several slips of m. rectus capitis dorsalis (m. r.c.d.) converge ventrally, towards tendinous insertions on the basioccipital tuberosities. M. complexus has an unusual lateral, tendinous insertion. B, posterolateral view of m. longissimus capitis superficialis (outlined in dark grey) of Alligator mississippiensis. The posterior origin and the insertion are tendinous. M. iliocostallis capitis (m. il. cap.) is depicted, and m. constrictor colli has not been dissected away. The neck is slightly dorsiflexed in this view.

Figure 12. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 12. A, origins of m. rectus capitis lateralis (m. r.c.l.) and rectus capitis ventralis (m. r.c.v.) of Corvus brachyrhynchos, from C2 prosessus ventralis. B, all origins of m. r.c.v. from anterior cervicals of another specimen of Corvus brachyrhynchos, and its m. rectus capitis lateralis origin from C2. Both images are ventrolateral views. C, ventrolateral view of m. rectus capitis ventralis (with light outline) of Falco columbarius.

Figure 8. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 8. A, lateral view of m. longus colli dorsalis pars cranialis (m. l.c.d. cranialis), m. longus colli dorsalis pars caudalis (m. l.c.d. caudalis) and mm. intertransversarii (mm. intertrans.) of Cygnus columbianus. Note posterior slips contributing to m. l.c.d. cranialis, ventrally inserting heads of m. l.c.d. caudalis and multiple tendinous divisions of all mm. intertrans. B, left m. transversospinalis cervicis (m. trans. cerv., outlined in grey) of Caiman crocodylus, inserts by a white tendon onto C1. M. spinocapitis posticus (m. sp. cap. post.) and m. longissimus capitis superficialis (m. long. cap. sup., with part of surrounding fascia left on) are also outlined in grey. Superficial muscles have been removed.

Figure 7. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 7. A, dorsal view of m. biventer cervicis (m. biv. c., dark outline) and m. longus colli dorsalis pars cranialis of Aquila chrysaetos. Note the tendon intervening between anterior and posterior bellies of m. biv. c. M. complexus has been removed. B, dorsal view of m. transversospinalis capitis (m. trans. cap., dark outline) of Alligator mississippiensis. Medial and lateral portions of m. trans. cap. in Alligator are not distinguished here. C, lateral view of m. trans. cap. of Alligator mississippiensis (dark outline). D, m. complexus (dark outline) and m. rectus capitis lateralis (light outline) of Pelicanus occidentalis in lateral view. E, m. complexus of Pelicanus occidentalis, outlined in dark grey on the right. This is a dorsal view, with anterior towards the top. F, dorsal view of dissected Alligator mississippiensis, with m. epistrpheo-capitis lateralis, m. spinocapitis posticus and m. transversospinalis cervicis outlined in grey. M. transversospinalis capitis has been removed. G, m. splenius capitis of Anas platyrhynchos, from C2 to the occiput, outlined in grey, in posterior view. M. complexus and m. biventer cervicis have been removed. H, m. epistropheo-capitis medialis/m. altoïdius capitis of Caiman crocodylus, outlined in grey. M. transversospinalis capitis and m. epistropheo-capitis lateralis have been removed.

Figure 5 in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 5. Attachments of muscles inserting on the occiput of birds. A, posterior cervical vertebrae of Strutio camelus, showing osteological origin of posterior belly of m. biventer cervicis. B, anterior cervical vertebrae of Haliaeetus leucocephalus, with origins of m. complexus, m. splenius capitis and m. rectus capitis dorsalis (outlined). M. complexus originates from the epipophyses dorsally (as in Haliaeetus leucocephalus), and sometimes the lateral tubercles ventrally. For adjoining origins of m. complexus and m. rectus capitis dorsalis from the lateral tubercles, the latter is the anterior of each pair. C, occiput of Struthio camelus, depicting all insertions. In Struthio camelus and many other birds m. splenius capitis lateralis inserts laterally onto the occiput, but in other birds part of m. complexus inserts here.

Figure 4 in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 4. Comparison of major sites of muscle attachment on the necks of tyrannosaurids versus crocodilians and birds. A, cervical series of Caiman crocodylus (above; C1–C9) and Tyrannosaurus rex (below; C1–C10), depicting similarities of posterior transverse process morpohology. B, cervical series of Asio flamaeus (above) and Tyrannosaurus rex (below), depicting morphological similarities of epipophysis and the C2 neural spine. In all three groups the anterior transverse processes are smaller than their posterior counterparts (to show this clearly the C2 cerivical rib of T. rex is not pictured). Cervical rib morphology differs markedly among these archosaurs. The specimens are scaled to similar lengths from C1 to C9. The Tyrannosaurus rex is a composite reconstruction of C1 from Osborn (1905), BHI 3033 (C2) and AMNH 5027 (the remaining bones).