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Data from: Reliability-based weighting of visual and vestibular cues in displacement estimation

When navigating through the environment, our brain needs to infer how far we move and in which direction we are heading. In this estimation process, the brain may rely on multiple sensory modalities, including the visual and vestibular systems. Previous research has mainly focused on heading estimation, showing that sensory cues are combined by weighting them in proportion to their reliability, consistent with statistically optimal integration. But while heading estimation could improve with the ongoing motion, due to the constant flow of information, the estimate of how far we move requires the integration of sensory information across the whole displacement. In this study, we investigate whether the brain optimally combines visual and vestibular information during a displacement estimation task, even if their reliability varies from trial to trial. Participants were seated on a linear sled, immersed in a stereoscopic virtual reality environment. They were subjected to a passive linear motion involving visual and vestibular cues with different levels of visual coherence to change relative cue reliability and with cue discrepancies to test relative cue weighting. Participants performed a two-interval two-alternative forced-choice task, indicating which of two sequentially perceived displacements was larger. Our results show that humans adapt their weighting of visual and vestibular information from trial to trial in proportion to their reliability. These results provide evidence that humans optimally integrate visual and vestibular information in order to estimate their body displacement.

Data from: Selective visual representation of letters and words in the left ventral occipito-temporal cortex with intracerebral recordings

We report a comprehensive cartography of selective responses to visual letters and words in the human ventral occipito-temporal cortex (VOTC) with direct neural recordings, clarifying key aspects of the neural basis of reading. Intracerebral recordings were performed in a large group of patients (n = 37) presented with visual words inserted periodically in rapid sequences of pseudofonts, nonwords, or pseudowords, enabling classification of responses at three levels of word processing: letter, prelexical, and lexical. While letter selective responses are found in much of the VOTC, with a higher proportion in left posterior regions, prelexical/lexical responses are confined to the middle and anterior sections of the left fusiform gyrus. This region overlaps with and extends more anteriorly than the visual word form area typically identified with functional magnetic resonance imaging. In this region, prelexical responses provide evidence for populations of neurons sensitive to the statistical regularity of letter combinations independently of lexical responses to familiar words. Despite extensive sampling in anterior ventral temporal regions, there is no hierarchical organization between prelexical and lexical responses in the left fusiform gyrus. Overall, distinct word processing levels depend on neural populations that are spatially intermingled rather than organized according to a strict posteroanterior hierarchy in the left VOTC.

Data from: Perceived duration of brief visual events is mediated by timing mechanisms at the global stages of visual processing

There is a growing body of evidence pointing to the existence of modality-specific timing mechanisms for encoding sub-second durations. For example, the duration compression effect describes how prior adaptation to a dynamic visual stimulus results in participants underestimating the duration of a sub-second test stimulus when it is presented at the adapted location. There is substantial evidence for the existence of both cortical and pre-cortical visual timing mechanisms; however, little is known about where in the processing hierarchy the cortical mechanisms are likely to be located. We carried out a series of experiments to determine whether or not timing mechanisms are to be found at the global processing level. We had participants adapt to random dot patterns that varied in their motion coherence, thus allowing us to probe the visual system at the level of motion integration. Our first experiment revealed a positive linear relationship between the motion coherence level of the adaptor stimulus and duration compression magnitude. However, increasing the motion coherence level in a stimulus also results in an increase in global speed. To test whether duration compression effects were driven by global speed or global motion, we repeated the experiment, but kept global speed fixed while varying motion coherence levels. The duration compression persisted, but the linear relationship with motion coherence was absent, suggesting that the effect was driven by adapting global speed mechanisms. Our results support previous claims that visual timing mechanisms persist at the level of global processing.

Data from: Membrane potential dynamics of spontaneous and visually evoked gamma activity in V1 of awake mice

Cortical gamma activity (30–80 Hz) is believed to play important functions in neural computation and arises from the interplay of parvalbumin-expressing interneurons (PV) and pyramidal cells (PYRs). However, the subthreshold dynamics underlying its emergence in the cortex of awake animals remain unclear. Here, we characterized the intracellular dynamics of PVs and PYRs during spontaneous and visually evoked gamma activity in layers 2/3 of V1 of awake mice using targeted patch-clamp recordings and synchronous local field potentials (LFPs). Strong gamma activity patterned in short bouts (one to three cycles), occurred when PVs and PYRs were depolarizing and entrained their membrane potential dynamics regardless of the presence of visual stimulation. PV firing phase locked unconditionally to gamma activity. However, PYRs only phase locked to visually evoked gamma bouts. Taken together, our results indicate that gamma activity corresponds to short pulses of correlated background synaptic activity synchronizing the output of cortical neurons depending on external sensory drive.

Data from: Boundary strength analysis: combining colour pattern geometry and coloured patch visual properties for use in predicting behaviour and fitness

1.Colour patterns are used by many species to make decisions that ultimately affect their Darwinian fitness. Colour patterns consist of a mosaic of patches that differ in geometry and visual properties. Although traditionally pattern geometry and colour patch visual properties are analysed separately, these components are likely to work together as a functional unit. Despite this, the combined effect of patch visual properties, patch geometry, and the effects of the patch boundaries on animal visual systems, behaviour and fitness are relatively unexplored. 2.Here we describe Boundary Strength Analysis (BSA), a novel way to combine the geometry of the edges (boundaries among the patch classes) with the receptor noise estimate (ΔS) of the intensity of the edges. The method is based upon known properties of vertebrate and invertebrate retinas. The mean and SD of ΔS (mΔS, sΔS) of a colour pattern can be obtained by weighting each edge class ΔS by its length, separately for chromatic and achromatic ΔS. This assumes those colour patterns, or parts of the patterns used in signalling, with larger mΔS and sΔS are more stimulating and hence more salient to the viewers. BSA can be used to examine both colour patterns and visual backgrounds. 3.BSA was successful in assessing the estimated conspicuousness of colour pattern variants in two species, guppies (Poecilia reticulata) and Gouldian finches (Erythrura gouldiae), both polymorphic for patch colour, luminance and geometry. 3D representations of the ΔS of patch edges (Fort Diagrams) of both species show that there is little or negative geometric correspondence between the chromatic and achromatic edges. All individuals have mΔS > 1.5 for both chromatic and achromatic measures, indicating the high within‐pattern contrast expected for display signals. In contrast from what one would expect from sexual selection, all guppies have mΔS less than expected from random contacts between all pairs of patch colour/luminance classes. The correlation between chromatic and luminance ΔS is negative in both species but zero when correlating all possible kinds of edges between the colours of each species and morph indicating non‐random colour geometry. 4.The pattern difference between chromatic and achromatic edges in both species reveals the possibility that chromatic and achromatic edges could function differently. The smaller than random expected mΔS values in guppies suggests an anti‐predator function because guppies are never found without predators. Moreover, mΔS could vary with predation intensity within and among species. BSA can be applied to any colour pattern used in intraspecific and interspecific behaviour. Seven predictions and four questions about colour patterns are presented. 5.In species which are very convex, both chromatic and luminance mΔS change with viewing angle; geometry of signalling is as important as signal geometry.

Data from: Drosophila increase exploration after visually detecting predators

Novel stimuli elicit behaviors that are collectively known as specific exploration. These behaviors allow the animal to become more familiar with the novel objects within its environment. Specific exploration is frequently suppressed by defensive reactions to predator cues. Herein, we examine if this suppression occurs in Drosophila melanogaster by measuring the response of these flies to wild harvested predators. The flies used in our experiments have been cultured and had not lived under predator threat for multiple decades. In a circular arena with centrally-caged predators, wild type Drosophila actively avoided the pantropical jumping spider, Plexippus paykulli, and the Texas unicorn mantis, Phyllovates chlorophaena, indicating an innate defensive reaction to these predators. Interestingly, wild type Drosophila males also avoided a centrally-caged mock spider, and the avoidance of the mock spider became exaggerated when it was made to move within the cage. Visually impaired Drosophila failed to detect and avoid the Plexippus paykulli and the moving mock spider, while the broadly anosmic orco2 mutants were fully capable of detecting and avoiding Plexippus paykulli, indicating that these flies principally relied upon vison to perceive the predator stimuli. During early exploration of the arena, exploratory activity increased in the presence of Plexippus paykulli and the moving mock spider. The elevated activity induced by Plexippus paykulli disappeared after the fly had finished exploring, suggesting the flies were capable of habituating the predator cues. Taken together, these results indicate that despite being isolated from predators for decades Drosophila will visually detect these predators, retain innate defensive behaviors, respond by increasing exploratory activity in the arena rather than suppressing activity, and may habituate to normal predator cues.

Data from: Do trace metals influence visual signals? Effects of trace metals on iridescent and melanic feather colouration in the feral pigeon

Trace metals are chemical pollutants of prime concern nowadays given their implication in several human diseases and their noxious effects on wildlife. Previous studies demonstrated their negative (e.g. lead, cadmium) or positive (e.g. zinc) effects on body condition, immunity and reproductive success in birds. Because of their effects on bird condition, trace metals are likely to influence the production of condition-dependent plumage colours, that may be used in mate choice. In the feral pigeon Columba livia, we investigated iridescent colouration in response to lead and zinc experimental (i.e. metal supplementation in standardized conditions) and natural exposure (i.e. metal concentrations in feathers of wild urban pigeons), and melanic feather colouration in response to experimental lead and zinc exposure. Both studies (i.e. experimental and correlative) consistently showed that lead exposure decreased iridescent neck feather brightness independently of colour morph. Moreover, lead, when provided alone, decreased melanic feather reflectance in the middle wavelengths while zinc supplementation increased melanic feather reflectance in the violet-wavelength. In conclusion, our study suggests that the colouration of iridescent and melanic feathers depends on the exposure to pollutants. Whether trace metal exposure affected the ability of birds to produce melanin pigments, to grow the microstructural feather elements required for maximum colour display, or to cope with bacteria that degrade feather microstuctures remains unclear. Future studies should investigate whether these metal-induced modifications of plumage colouration affect behaviours involved in sexual selection.

Data from: The hawk-eyed songbird: retinal morphology, eye shape, and visual fields of an aerial insectivore

Swallows are a unique group of songbirds because they are active-pursuit predators that execute all aspects of hunting prey in flight: search, detection, pursuit, and capture. We show that swallows have evolved a visual system that is unlike that of any other studied songbird. Swallows have a bifoveate retina that provides sharp lateral and frontal vision, an unusually long eye that enhances spatial resolution, a large posterior blind area, and a narrow binocular field. We also show that swallows and diurnal raptors (hawks and falcons) have converged on a similar visual configuration but that, interestingly, predatory songbirds that ambush prey (flycatchers) have not converged on the same suite of traits. Despite the commonly held belief that predators rely on binocular vision, the temporal (frontally projecting) fovea present in swallows—but not present in other songbirds—is likely not involved in binocular vision. Instead, swallows have four nonoverlapping foveae in a 100° arc around the beak, which can improve the tracking of frontally located aerial prey that are engaging in evasive maneuvers. Overall, vision in pursuit predators reflects the complex sensory demands of hunting in the air at high speeds and emphasizes the importance of acute frontal vision in predators.

Data from: Hummingbirds control hovering flight by stabilizing visual motion

Relatively little is known about how sensory information is used for controlling flight in birds. A powerful method is to immerse an animal in a dynamic virtual reality environment to examine behavioral responses. Here, we investigated the role of vision during free-flight hovering in hummingbirds to determine how optic flow—image movement across the retina—is used to control body position. We filmed hummingbirds hovering in front of a projection screen with the prediction that projecting moving patterns would disrupt hovering stability but stationary patterns would allow the hummingbird to stabilize position. When hovering in the presence of moving gratings and spirals, hummingbirds lost positional stability and responded to the specific orientation of the moving visual stimulus. There was no loss of stability with stationary versions of the same stimulus patterns. When exposed to a single stimulus many times or to a weakened stimulus that combined a moving spiral with a stationary checkerboard, the response to looming motion declined. However, even minimal visual motion was sufficient to cause a loss of positional stability despite prominent stationary features. Collectively, these experiments demonstrate that hummingbirds control hovering position by stabilizing motions in their visual field. The high sensitivity and persistence of this disruptive response is surprising, given that the hummingbird brain is highly specialized for sensory processing and spatial mapping, providing other potential mechanisms for controlling position.

Data from: Cross-frequency synchronization connects networks of fast and slow oscillations during visual working memory maintenance

Neuronal activity in sensory and fronto-parietal (FP) areas underlies the representation and attentional control, respectively, of sensory information maintained in visual working memory (VWM). Within these regions, beta/gamma phase-synchronization supports the integration of sensory functions, while synchronization in theta/alpha bands supports the regulation of attentional functions. A key challenge is to understand which mechanisms integrate neuronal processing across these distinct frequencies and thereby the sensory and attentional functions. We investigated whether such integration could be achieved by cross-frequency phase synchrony (CFS). Using concurrent magneto- and electroencephalography, we found that CFS was load-dependently enhanced between theta and alpha–gamma and between alpha and beta-gamma oscillations during VWM maintenance among visual, FP, and dorsal attention (DA) systems. CFS also connected the hubs of within-frequency-synchronized networks and its strength predicted individual VWM capacity. We propose that CFS integrates processing among synchronized neuronal networks from theta to gamma frequencies to link sensory and attentional functions.

opencc-zeroJun 2019View details →

Data from: Visual modelling supports the potential for prey detection by means of diurnal active photolocation in a small cryptobenthic fish

Active sensing has been well documented in animals that use echolocation and electrolocation. Active photolocation, or active sensing using light, has received much less attention, and only in bioluminescent nocturnal species. However, evidence has suggested the diurnal triplefin Tripterygion delaisi uses controlled iris radiance, termed ocular sparks, for prey detection. While this form of diurnal active photolocation was behaviourally described, a study exploring the physical process would provide compelling support for this mechanism. In this paper, we investigate the conditions under which diurnal active photolocation could assist T. delaisi in detecting potential prey. In the field, we sampled gammarids (genus Cheirocratus) and characterized the spectral properties of their eyes, which possess strong directional reflectors. In the laboratory, we quantified ocular sparks size and their angle-dependent radiance. Combined with environmental light measurements and known properties of the visual system of T. delaisi, we modeled diurnal active photolocation under various scenarios. Our results corroborate that diurnal active photolocation should help T. delaisi detect gammarids at distances relevant to foraging, 4.5 cm under favourable conditions and up to 2.5 cm under average conditions. To determine the prevalence of diurnal active photolocation for micro-prey, we encourage further theoretical and empirical work.

opencc-zeroDec 2018View details →

Data from: Human gaze tracks attentional focusing in memorised visual space

Brain areas that control gaze are also recruited for covert shifts of spatial attention (1-9). In the external space of perception, there is a natural, ecological link between the control of gaze and of spatial attention, since information sampled at covertly attended locations can inform where to look next (2,10,11). Attention can also be directed internally to representations held within the spatial layout of visual working memory (12-16). In such cases, the incentive for using attention to direct gaze disappears since there are no external targets to scan. Here we investigate whether the brain's oculomotor system also participates in attention within the internal space of memory. Paradoxically, we reveal this participation through gaze behaviour itself. We demonstrate that selecting an item from visual working memory biases gaze in the direction of the memorised location of that item – despite there being nothing to look at and even though location memory was never explicitly probed. This retrospective 'gaze bias' occurs only when an item is not already in the internal focus of attention, and predicts the performance benefit associated with the focusing of internal attention. We conclude that the oculomotor system also participates in the focusing of attention within memorised space, leaving traces all the way to the eyes.

opencc-zeroDec 2012View details →

Data from: pavo: an R package for the analysis, visualization and organization of spectral data

1. Recent technical and methodological advances have led to a dramatic increase in the use of spectrometry to quantify reflectance properties of biological materials, as well as models to determine how these colours are perceived by animals, providing important insights into ecological and evolutionary aspects of animal visual communication. 2. Despite this growing interest, a unified cross-platform framework for analyzing and visualizing spectral data has not been available. We introduce pavo, an R package that facilitates the organization, visualization, and analysis of spectral data in a cohesive framework. pavo is highly flexible, allowing users to (a) organize and manipulate data from a variety of sources, (b) visualize data using R's state-of-the-art graphics capabilities, and (c) analyze data using spectral curve shape properties and visual system modeling for a broad range of taxa. 3. In this paper, we present a summary of the functions implemented in pavo and how they integrate in a workflow to explore and analyze spectral data. We also present an exact solution for the calculation of colour volume overlap in colourspace, thus expanding previously published methodologies. 4. As an example of pavo's capabilities, we compare the colour patterns of three African Glossy Starling species, two of which have diverged very recently. We demonstrate how both colour vision models and direct spectral measurement analysis can be used to describe colour attributes and differences between these species. Different approaches to visual models and several plotting capabilities exemplify the package's versatility and streamlined workflow. 5. pavo provides a cohesive environment for handling spectral data and addressing complex sensory ecology questions, while integrating with R's modular core for a broader and comprehensive analytical framework, automated management of spectral data, and reproducible workflows for colour analysis.

Data from: Luminance-dependent visual processing enables moth flight in low light

Animals must operate under an enormous range of light intensities. Nocturnal and twilight flying insects are hypothesized to compensate for dim conditions by integrating light over longer times. This slowing of visual processing would increase light sensitivity but should also reduce movement response times. Using freely hovering moths tracking robotic moving flowers, we showed that the moth's visual processing does slow in dim light. These longer response times are consistent with models of how visual neurons enhance sensitivity at low light intensities, but they could pose a challenge for moths feeding from swaying flowers. Dusk-foraging moths avoid this sensorimotor tradeoff; their nervous systems slow down but not so much as to interfere with their ability to track the movements of real wind-blown flowers.

Data from: Prospective, observational study comparing automated and visual point-of-care urinalysis in general practice

Objective Point-of-care testing (POCT) urinalysis might reduce errors in (subjective) reading, registration and communication of test results, and might also improve diagnostic outcome and optimise patient management. Evidence is lacking. In the present study, we have studied the analytical performance of automated urinalysis and visual urinalysis compared with a reference standard in routine general practice. Setting The study was performed in six general practitioner (GP) group practices in the Netherlands. Automated urinalysis was compared with visual urinalysis in these practices. Reference testing was performed in a primary care laboratory (Saltro, Utrecht, The Netherlands). Primary and secondary outcome measures Analytical performance of automated and visual urinalysis compared with the reference laboratory method was the primary outcome measure, analysed by calculating sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV) and Cohen's κ coefficient for agreement. Secondary outcome measure was the user-friendliness of the POCT analyser. Results Automated urinalysis by experienced and routinely trained practice assistants in general practice performs as good as visual urinalysis for nitrite, leucocytes and erythrocytes. Agreement for nitrite is high for automated and visual urinalysis. κ's are 0.824 and 0.803 (ranked as very good and good, respectively). Agreement with the central laboratory reference standard for automated and visual urinalysis for leucocytes is rather poor (0.256 for POCT and 0.197 for visual, respectively, ranked as fair and poor). κ's for erythrocytes are higher: 0.517 (automated) and 0.416 (visual), both ranked as moderate. The Urisys 1100 analyser was easy to use and considered to be not prone to flaws. Conclusions Automated urinalysis performed as good as traditional visual urinalysis on reading of nitrite, leucocytes and erythrocytes in routine general practice. Implementation of automated urinalysis in general practice is justified as automation is expected to reduce human errors in patient identification and transcribing of results.

Data from: Using geometric morphometric visualizations of directional selection gradients to investigate morphological differentiation

Researchers studying extant and extinct taxa are often interested in identifying the evolutionary processes that have lead to the morphological differences among the taxa. Ideally, one could distinguish the influences of neutral evolutionary processes (genetic drift, mutation) from natural selection, and in situations for which selection is implicated, identify the targets of selection. The directional selection gradient is an effective tool for investigating evolutionary process, because it can relate form (size and shape) differences between taxa to the variation and covariation found within taxa. However, although most modern morphometric analyses use the tools of geometric morphometrics (GM) to analyze landmark data, to date, selection gradients have mainly been calculated from linear measurements. To address this methodological gap, here we present a GM approach for visualizing and comparing between-taxon selection gradients with each other, associated difference vectors, and "selection" gradients from neutral simulations. To exemplify our approach, we use a dataset of 347 three-dimensional landmarks and semilandmarks recorded on the crania of 260 primate specimens (112 humans, 67 common chimpanzees, 36 bonobos, 45 gorillas). Results on this example dataset show how incorporating geometric information can provide important insights into the evolution of the human braincase, and serve to demonstrate the utility of our approach for understanding morphological evolution.

Data from: Three-dimensional shape and velocity changes affect responses of a locust visual interneuron to approaching objects

Adaptive collision avoidance behaviours require accurate detection of complex spatiotemporal properties of an object approaching in an animal's natural, 3-dimensional environment. Within the locust, the lobula giant movement detector (LGMD) and its postsynaptic partner, the descending contralateral movement detector (DCMD) respond robustly to images that emulate an approaching 2-dimensional object and exhibit firing rate modulation correlated with changes in object trajectory. It is not known how this pathway responds to visual expansion of a 3-dimensional object or an approaching object that changes velocity, both of which representing natural stimuli. We compared DCMD responses to images that emulate the approach of a sphere with those elicited by a 2-dimensional disc. A sphere evoked later peak firing and deceased sensitivity to the ratio of the half size of the object to the approach velocity, resulting in an increased threshold subtense angle required to generate peak firing. We also presented locusts with a sphere that decreased or increased velocity against either a white or flow field background. A velocity decrease resulted in transition-associated peak firing followed by a firing rate increase that resembled the response to a constant, slower velocity. A velocity increase resulted in an earlier increase in the firing rate that was more pronounced with an earlier transition. For the flow field contrast used here, we observed no effect of background motion on responses to approaches along constant or changing velocities. These results further demonstrate that this pathway can provide motor circuits for behaviour with salient information about complex stimulus dynamics.

Data from: Assessing the potential information content of multicomponent visual signals: a machine learning approach

Careful investigation of the form of animal signals can offer novel insights into their function. Here, we deconstruct the face patterns of a tribe of primates, the guenons (Cercopithecini), and examine the information that is potentially available in the perceptual dimensions of their multicomponent displays. Using standardized colour-calibrated images of guenon faces, we measure variation in appearance both within and between species. Overall face pattern was quantified using the computer vision 'eigenface' technique, and eyebrow and nose-spot focal traits were described using computational image segmentation and shape analysis. Discriminant function analyses established whether these perceptual dimensions could be used to reliably classify species identity, individual identity, age and sex, and, if so, identify the dimensions that carry this information. Across the 12 species studied, we found that both overall face pattern and focal trait differences could be used to categorize species and individuals reliably, whereas correct classification of age category and sex was not possible. This pattern makes sense, as guenons often form mixed-species groups in which familiar conspecifics develop complex differentiated social relationships but where the presence of heterospecifics creates hybridization risk. Our approach should be broadly applicable to the investigation of visual signal function across the animal kingdom.

Data from: ggtree: an R package for visualization and annotation of phylogenetic trees with their covariates and other associated data

We present an r package, ggtree, which provides programmable visualization and annotation of phylogenetic trees. ggtree can read more tree file formats than other softwares, including newick, nexus, NHX, phylip and jplace formats, and support visualization of phylo, multiphylo, phylo4, phylo4d, obkdata and phyloseq tree objects defined in other r packages. It can also extract the tree/branch/node-specific and other data from the analysis outputs of beast, epa, hyphy, paml, phylodog, pplacer, r8s, raxml and revbayes software, and allows using these data to annotate the tree. The package allows colouring and annotation of a tree by numerical/categorical node attributes, manipulating a tree by rotating, collapsing and zooming out clades, highlighting user selected clades or operational taxonomic units and exploration of a large tree by zooming into a selected portion. A two-dimensional tree can be drawn by scaling the tree width based on an attribute of the nodes. A tree can be annotated with an associated numerical matrix (as a heat map), multiple sequence alignment, subplots or silhouette images. The package ggtree is released under the artistic-2.0 license. The source code and documents are freely available through bioconductor (http://www.bioconductor.org/packages/ggtree).

Data from: The effect of static versus dynamic stimuli on visual processing of sexual cues in androphilic women and gynephilic men

Models of sexual response posit that attentional processing of sexual cues is requisite for sexual responding. Despite hypothesized similarities in the underlying processes resulting in sexual response, gender differences in sexual arousal patterns are abundant. One such gender difference relates to the stimulus features (e.g., gender cues, sexual activity cues) that elicit a response in men and women. In the current study, we examined how stimulus modality (static visual images versus dynamic audiovisual films) and stimulus features (gender, sexual activity, and nonsexual contextual cues) influences attentional (i.e., gaze) and elaborative (i.e., self-reported attraction, self-reported arousal) processing of sexual stimuli. Men's initial and controlled attention was consistently gender-specific (i.e., greater attention towards female targets), and this was not influenced by stimulus modality or the presence of sexual activity cues. In contrast, gender-specificity of women's attention patterns differed as a function of attentional stage, stimulus modality, and the features within the stimulus. Degree of specificity was positively predictive of self-reported attraction in both genders; however, it was not significantly predictive of self-reported arousal. These findings are discussed in the context of gendered processing of visual sexual information, including a discussion of implications for research designs.