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Figure 11 in Osteology of Rauisuchus tiradentes from the Late Triassic (Carnian) Santa Maria Formation of Brazil, and its implications for rauisuchid anatomy and phylogeny

Figure 11. Caudal vertebrae of Rauisuchus tiradentes. Anterior caudal vertebra (BSPG AS XXV 79) in left lateral view (A), and posterior view (B). Posterior caudal vertebra (BSPG AS XXV 83) in left lateral view (C). Abbreviations: ans, acessory neural spine; cpol, centropostzygapophyseal lamina; posl, postspinal lamina; poz, postzygapophysis; prz, prezygapophysis; spol, spinopostzygapophyseal lamina; tp, transverse process.

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Figure 15 in Osteology of Rauisuchus tiradentes from the Late Triassic (Carnian) Santa Maria Formation of Brazil, and its implications for rauisuchid anatomy and phylogeny

Figure 15. Right tibia, fibula, and astragalus (BSPG AS XXV 90) of Rauisuchus tiradentes in anterior view (A) and posterior view (B). Abbreviations: asn astragalar notch; ast, astragalus; fib, fibula; ift, iliofibularis trochanter; lap, laterally ascending process; ld, lunate depression; md, medial depression; tib, tibia.

Figure 12. Dryolestes leiriensis left inner ear virtual endocast. A, dorsomedial view. B in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 12. Dryolestes leiriensis left inner ear virtual endocast. A, dorsomedial view. B, ventrolateral view. Abbreviations: ac, aqueductus cochleae; asc, anterior semicircular canal; asca, anterior semicircular canal ampulla; av, aqueductus vestibuli; bpl, base for primary bony lamina of basilar membrane; bsl, base of the secondary bony lamina of basilar membrane; cc, crus commune; cg, cochlear ganglion (blue, reconstructed); cn(viii), reconstructed cochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII); co, cochlear canal basal portion [the first half-turn (180° arc) from the sacculo-utricular junction]; co-a, cochlear canal apical portion [the apical quarter-turn (270-180° arc)]; dus, division between utricule and saccule; fc, fenestra cochleae; fcn, foramina for cochlear nerve fibres (cranial nerve VIII) [= tractus spiralis foraminosus, or the foramina through the cribriform plate between the internal acoustic meatus and the cochlear ganglion canal (cg)]; fsa(viii), foramen for saccular nerve; fut (viii), foramen for utricular nerve (VIII); fv, fenestra vestibuli; iam, internal acoustic meatus; ivc, inflection of vestibule and cochlea; lsc, lateral semicircular canal; lsca, lateral semicircular canal ampulla; p-fcn, the posterior-most entry foramen of the cochlear nerve fibres; psc, posterior semicircular canal; psca, posterior semicircular canal ampulla; sa, saccule; scc, secondary crus commune; ut, utricle.

Figure 4 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 4. Dryolestes leiriensis left petrosal and the inner ear bony labyrinth (Gui Mam 2/81). Micro-computed tomography scan transverse slices of the vestibular and canalicular regions. Continued from Figure 1: J-R, anterior-posterior series from approximately the middle to the posterior end of the inner ear bony labyrinth. Abbreviations: ac, aqueductus cochleae; asc, anterior semicircular canal; asca, anterior semicircular canal ampulla; av, aqueductus vestibuli; cc, crus commune; fc, fenestra cochleae; fv, fenestra vestibuli; lsc, lateral semicircular canal; lsca, lateral semicircular canal ampulla; nc, nuchal crest component of pars canalicularis; psc, posterior semicircular canal; psca, posterior semicircular canal ampulla; ptc, post-temporal canal (incomplete, preserved as an open groove); sa, saccule; saf, subarcuate fossa; scc, secondary crus commune; sss, sigmoid sinus groove; ut, utricule.

Figure 3 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 3. Dryolestes leiriensis left petrosal and inner ear bony labyrinth (Gui Mam 2/81). Micro-computed tomography scan transverse slices of the pars cochlearis and the vestibular region. A-I, anterior-posterior series from the anterior end to the approximately middle portion of the inner ear bony labyrinth. Abbreviations: ac, aqueductus cochleae; asc, anterior semicircular canal; asca, anterior semicircular canal ampulla; av, aqueductus vestibuli; bpl, base for the primary bony lamina of basilar membrane (wall of spiral ganglion canal); bsl, base of the secondary bony lamina of basilar membrane (bony reinforcement of spiral ligament); cc, crus commune; cgc, incomplete and remnant canal for spiral ganglion (= base of the primary bony lamina); co, cochlear canal basal portion [the first half-turn (180° arc) from the sacculo-utricular junction]; co-a, cochlear canal apical portion [the apical quarter-turn (270-180° arc) from the sacculo-utricular junction]; csf, cavum supracochleare floor (remnant); fc, fenestra cochleae; fcn, foramina of cochlear nerve VIII (= partial tractus spiralis foraminosus, or the cribriform plate); fn + fut, shared space of the facial nerve VII and utricular nerve VIII; fut, foramen for utricular nerve VIII; fv, fenestra vestibuli; iam, internal acoustic meatus; ips, inferior petrosal sinus; ivc, inflection point between the vestibule and cochlea; pfc, prefacial commissure; pff, primary facial foramen; sa, saccule; stf, stapedial muscle fossa; ut, utricle.

Figure 7 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 7. Dryolestes leiriensis left petrosal (Gui Mam 2/81). A, ventrolateral view of the pars cochlearis. B, ventral view of the pars cochlearis. Abbreviations: cif, crista interfenestralis; cp, crista parotica; csf, cavum supracochleare floor (incompletely preserved as a ridge); ctp, caudal tympanic process; er, epitympanic recess; fc, fenestra cochleae; fi, fossa incudis; fv, fenestra vestibuli; hf, hiatus Fallopii (for greater superficial petrosal nerve, incomplete open notch); mps, medial promontorial sulcus (with uncertain soft-tissue homology); nc, nuchal (lambdoidal) component of pars canalicularis of petrosal; P, parietal (fragments); pa, pila antotica (incomplete); pfc, prefacial commissure; pff, primary facial foramen VII; pica, promontorial sulcus for internal carotid artery; pp, paroccipital process (ventral projection); pr, promontorium; pss, prootic sinus canal (incompletely preserved as open groove); pst, proximal stapedial artery sulcus; ptc, post-temporal canal (for arteria and vena diploëtica magna); ptr, postpromontorial tympanic recess; rcm, resin plastic and coal matrix as preserved in Gui Mam 2/81; rsa?, ramus superior of stapedial artery sulcus (incompletely preserved as open groove, putative); sff, secondary facial foramen (for hyomandibular branch of facial nerve, preserved as open notch); smn, stylomastoid notch (putative); sqd, squamosal contact dorsal part (on pars canalicularis of petrosal); sqv, squamosal contact ventral part (on pars canalicularis of petrosal); stf, stapedial muscle fossa; th?, tympanohyal attachment; ttf, tensor tympani muscle fossa; '?', unidentifiable bone fragments.

Figure 15 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 15. Evolutionary pattern of cochlear canal in therian mammals (cross-sections of the cochlear canal near the foramen (foramina) of the cochlear nerves. A, Sinoconodon (modified from Luo et al., 1995). B, Morganucodon (after Luo, 2001). C, the monotreme Ornithorhynchus (modified from Fleischer, 1973: Abb. 78). D, generalized eutriconodont (Z.-X. Luo, unpubl. data). E, Nemegtbaatar (modified from Hurum, 1998). F, Dryolestes. G, Homo sapiens (modified from Fleischer, 1973). Nodes same as in Figure 1: 1, mammaliaforms; 2, crown Mammalia; 3, theriiforms; 6, cladotherians; 8, crown therians.

Figure 8 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 8. Dryolestes leiriensis left petrosal (Gui Mam 2/81). A, medial view of the pars cochlearis (vertical stereo pair). B, medioventral view of the pars cochlearis (vertical stereo pair). The external occipital aspect of the petrosal becomes visible in medial views because of a post mortem bending of the pars canalicularis relative to the pars cochlearis. Abbreviations: ac, aqueductus cochleae canal opening (intramural in jugular notch); av, aqueductus vestibuli canal opening; boc, basioccipital contact (and suture); cif, crista interfenestralis; ctp, caudal tympanic process; eoc, exoccipital contact (and suture); fc, fenestra cochleae; iam, internal acoustic meatus; ips, inferior petrosal sinus –posterior opening of the canal (on tympanic surface); ipsa?, inferior petrosal sinus – anterior opening of the canal (intramural and in the basioccipital-petrosal suture; putative); jf, jugular foramen (exposed as open notch); me, mastoid exposure of pars canalicularis of petrosal (on the occipital aspect of the skull); mps, medial promontorial sulcus (with uncertain soft-tissue homology); nc, nuchal (lambdoidal) component of pars canalicularis of petrosal; p, parietal (fragments); pa, pila antotica (incomplete); pfc, prefacial commissure; pica, promontorial sulcus of internal carotid artery; pp, paroccipital process (ventral projection); pr, promontorium; ptc, post-temporal canal (for arteria and vena diploëtica magna); ptr, postpromontorial tympanic recess; rcm, resin plastic and coal matrix as preserved in Gui Mam 2/81; saf, subarcuate fossa; soc, supraoccipital contact (and suture); sss, sigmoid sinus sulcus; '?', unidentifiable bone fragments.

Figure 6 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 6. Dryolestes leiriensis left petrosal (Gui Mam 2/81). A, ventromedial view of the pars cochlearis. B, ventral view of the pars cochlearis. Abbreviations: ac, aqueductus cochleae canal opening (intramural in jugular notch); boc, basioccipital contact (and suture); cif, crista interfenestralis; cp, crista parotica; csf, cavum supracochleare floor (incompletely preserved as a ridge); ctp, caudal tympanic process; eoc, exoccipital contact (and suture); er, epitympanic recess; fc, fenestra cochleae; fi, fossa incudis; fv, fenestra vestibuli; hf, hiatus Fallopii (for greater superficial petrosal nerve VII, incomplete open notch); ips, inferior petrosal sinus – posterior opening of the canal (on tympanic surface); ipsa?, inferior petrosal sinus – anterior opening of the canal (intramural and in the basioccipital-petrosal suture; putative); jf, jugular foramen (exposed as open notch); me, mastoid exposure of pars canalicularis of petrosal (on the occipital aspect of the skull); mps, medial promontorial sulcus (with uncertain soft-tissue homology); p, parietal (fragments); pa, pila antotica (incomplete); pica, promontorial sulcus for internal carotid artery; pp, paroccipital process (ventral projection); pff, primary facial nerve foramen; pr, promontorium; pss, prootic sinus sulcus (canal incompletely preserved as open groove); pst, proximal stapedial artery sulcus; ptc, post-temporal canal (for arteria and vena diploëtica magna); ptr, postpromontorial tympanic recess; rcm, resin plastic and coal matrix as preserved in Gui Mam 2/81; rsa?, ramus superior of stapedial artery sulcus (incompletely preserved as open groove, putative); sff, secondary facial foramen (for hyomandibular branch of facial nerve VII, preserved as open notch); smn, stylomastoid notch (putative); stf, stapedial muscle fossa; th?, tympanohyal attachment base; ttf, tensor tympani muscle fossa; '?', unidentifiable bone fragments.

Figure 11 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 11. Dryolestes leiriensis left petrosal (Gui Mam 2/81). A, B, stereo photographs of anteromedial view of the pars cochlearis and medial view of pars canalicularis (distorted). C, restoration of the petrosal in internal view (based on camera lucida drawing, corrected after post mortem distortion of the pars canalicularis; the blue area represents conjectural restoration from broken bone). D, structure identification (the occipital aspect of the petrosal becomes visible in medial views because of a post mortem bending of the pars canalicularis relative to the pars cochlearis). Abbreviations: ac, aqueductus cochleae canal opening (intramural in jugular notch); av, aqueductus vestibuli canal opening; boc, basioccipital contact (and suture); eoc, exoccipital contact surface; f1, intramural vascular foramen of pars mastoidea (of uncertain homology and located in the supraoccipital suture); f2, intramural vascular foramen of pars mastoidea (of uncertain homology and located in the exoccipital suture); fcn, foramina for cochlear nerve fibres (cranial nerve VIII); iam, internal acoustic meatus; ipsa, inferior petrosal sinus – anterior opening of the canal (intramural and in the basioccipital-petrosal suture; putative); jf, jugular foramen (exposed as open notch); me, mastoid exposure of pars canalicularis of petrosal (on the occipital aspect of the skull); nc, nuchal (lambdoidal) component of pars canalicularis of petrosal; oev, occipital emissary vascular foramen; p, parietal (fragments); pa, pila antotica (incomplete); pfc, prefacial commissure; pff, primary facial nerve foramen; prc, endocranial opening of prootic sinus canal (reconstructed); pss, prootic sinus sulcus; rcm, resin plastic and coal matrix as preserved in Gui Mam 2/81; saf, subarcuate fossa; soc, supraoccipital contact (and suture); sss, sigmoid sinus groove; tsg, transverse sinus groove; vn, vestibular nerve foramen.

Figure 5 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 5. Dryolestes leiriensis left petrosal and inner ear bony labyrinth (Gui Mam 2/81). Microcomputed tomography scan horizontal (frontal) slices of the pars cochlearis and the vestibular region. A-D, ventral-dorsal series from the lower part of the basal cochlear turn to the apex of the cochlea. Abbreviations: asc, anterior semicircular canal; av, aqueductus vestibuli; bpl, base for primary bony lamina of basilar membrane (= wall of spiral ganglion canal); bsl, secondary bony lamina of basilar membrane (bony reinforcement of spiral ligament); cgc, cochlear ganglion canal; co, cochlear canal basal portion [the first half-turn (180° arc) from the sacculo-utricular junction); co-a, cochlear canal apical portion (the apical quarter-turn 180–270° arc) from the sacculo-utricular junction]; dus, division (crest) between utricle and saccule; fc, fenestra cochleae; fcn, foramina for cochlear nerve fibres VIII (= cribriform plate); fn, primary facial nerve foramen VII; fsa, foramen for saccular nerve VIII; fut, foramen for utricular nerve VIII; fut + fn, shared space for facial nerve and vestibular nerve (inside the internal acoustic meatus); fv, fenestra vestibuli; iam, internal acoustic meatus; ips, inferior petrosal sinus; ivc, inflection point between the vestibule and cochlea; lsc, lateral semicircular canal; lsca, lateral semicircular canal ampulla; pa, pila antotica (incomplete); p-fcn, posterior-most foramen of foramina of cochlear nerve; ptc, post-temporal canal (partial, without squamosal wall); sa, saccule; saf, subarcuate fossa; sss, sigmoid sinus sulcus; stf, stapedial muscle fossa; ut, utricle.

Figure 14 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 14. Interpretation of neural and related bony structures in the cochlear canal of Dryolestes. A, virtual reconstruction of the inner ear bony labyrinth from microcomputed tomography. B, structures in cross-section. Yellow, interpretive reconstruction of the cochlear nerve fibres perforating the cochlear nerve VIII foramina (= tractus foraminosus spiralis). Blue, the extent of the spiral ganglion along the cochlear canal, inferred from the basal wall of the ganglion canal. Grey, reconstruction of the incomplete primary bony lamina. The cribriform plate (tractus spiralis foraminosus) and the base of the primary bony lamina are preserved. However, the edge of the primary bony lamina can only be inferred.

Figure 10 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 10. Dryolestes leiriensis left petrosal (Gui Mam 2/81). A, medial view of the pars cochlearis. B, medioventral view of the pars cochlearis. The external occipital aspect of the petrosal becomes visible in medial views because of a post mortem bending of the pars canalicularis relative to the pars cochlearis. Abbreviations: ac, aqueductus cochleae canal opening (intramural in jugular notch); av, aqueductus vestibuli canal opening; boc, basioccipital contact (and suture); eoc, exoccipital contact; fc, fenestra cochleae; fcn, foramina for cochlear nerve fibres; iam, internal acoustic meatus; ips, inferior petrosal sinus – posterior opening of the canal (on tympanic surface); ipsa, inferior petrosal sinus – anterior opening of the canal (intramural and in the basioccipital-petrosal suture; putative); jf, jugular foramen (exposed as open notch); me, mastoid exposure of pars canalicularis of petrosal (on the occipital aspect of the skull); mps, medial promontorial sulcus (with uncertain soft-tissue homology); nc, nuchal (lambdoidal) component of pars canalicularis of petrosal; p, parietal (fragments); pa, pila antotica (incomplete); pfc, prefacial commissure; pff, primary facial nerve foramen; pss, prootic sinus sulcus (incomplete canal); ptc, post-temporal canal (for arteria and vena diploëtica magna); rcm, resin plastic and coal matrix as preserved in Gui Mam 2/81; saf, subarcuate fossa; soc, supraoccipital contact (and suture); ts, transverse septum of internal acoustic meatus; vn, vestibular nerve foramen.

Figure 9 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 9. Dryolestes leiriensis left petrosal mars mastoidea (Gui Mam 2/81). A, B, posterior view of the pars mastoidea of petrosal (stereophotographs). C, posterior view of petrosal (camera lucida drawing). D, structure identification. Abbreviations: ac, aqueductus cochleae canal opening (intramural in jugular notch); boc, basioccipital contact (and suture); eoc, exoccipital contact surface; ips, inferior petrosal sinus – posterior opening of the canal (on tympanic surface); me, mastoid exposure of pars canalicularis of petrosal (on the occipital aspect of the skull); nc, nuchal (lambdoidal) component of pars canalicularis of petrosal; oev, occipital emissary vascular foramen; pp, (posterior) paroccipital process of petrosal; ptc, post-temporal canal (for the arteria and vena diploëtica magna); soc, supraoccipital contact (and suture).

Figure 2 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 2. Petrosal and inner ear of Dryolestes leiriensis (composite reconstruction). A, composite restoration of the left petrosal: the preserved part of the petrosal is stippled; the lateral trough and its related structures (shaded blue) are broken and missing; their reconstruction is conjectural, and restored on the basis of the petrosals of other therian mammals. B, conjectural restoration of the petrosal. C, outline of the reconstructed petrosal and the approximate position of the inner ear (lateral trough and its related structures reconstructed). D, virtual endocast of inner ear bony labyrinth (reconstruction of Gui Mam 2/81). Abbreviations: * indicates a slightly distorted area of promontorium surface.

Figure 13. Dryolestes leiriensis left inner ear virtual endocast. A, lateral view. B in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 13. Dryolestes leiriensis left inner ear virtual endocast. A, lateral view. B, dorsomedial view. Abbreviations: ac, aqueductus cochleae; asc, anterior semicircular canal; asca, anterior semicircular canal ampulla; av, aqueductus vestibuli; bpl, base for primary bony lamina of basilar membrane; bsl, bony base of the secondary lamina of basilar membrane; cc, crus commune; cg, cochlear ganglion (blue, reconstructed); cn(viii), reconstructed cochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII, yellow); co, cochlear canal basal portion [the first half-turn (180° arc) from the sacculo-utricular junction]; co-a, cochlear canal apical portion [the apical quarter-turn (180-270° arc) from the sacculo-utricular junction]; dus, division between utricle and saccule; fc, fenestra cochleae; fcn, foramina for cochlear nerve fibres (cranial nerve VIII) (= tractus spiralis foraminosus, or cribriform plate); fut, foramen for utricular nerve VIII (reconstructed, white); fv, fenestra vestibuli; iam, internal acoustic meatus; ivc, inflection point between utricle and saccule; lsc, lateral semicircular canal; lsca, lateral semicircular canal ampulla; p-fcn, the posterior-most entry foramen of cochlear nerve fibres; psc, posterior semicircular canal; psca, posterior semicircular canal ampulla; sa, saccule; scc, secondary crus commune; ut, utricle.

Figure 5 in Phylogenetic implications of the morphology of the braincase of caecilian amphibians (Gymnophiona)

Figure 5. The morphology of the braincase (sphenethmoid and os basale) and stapes, as revealed through microcomputed tomography, of Ichthyophis kohtaoensis (ZMH A08981). A, the braincase in lateral view; B, dorsal view; and C, ventral view (arrowhead indicates location of the constriction of floor of the os basale, if present). D, the sphenethmoid in anterior view; and E, posterior view. F, the os basale in anterior view; and G, posterior view (asterisk indicates the location of the incision of the margin of the otic capsule by the fenestra vestibuli). H, the right medial surface of the os basale revealing the foramina of the antotic wall and of the medial wall of the otic capsule. I–L, the left stapes in natural position. I, lateral view; J, medial view; K, anterior view; and L, posterior view. Scale bars = 1 cm. See Figure 2 for abbreviations.

Figure 4 in Phylogenetic implications of the morphology of the braincase of caecilian amphibians (Gymnophiona)

Figure 4. The morphology of the braincase (sphenethmoid and os basale) and stapes, as revealed through microcomputed tomography, of Boulengerula boulengeri (BM 2002.776). A, the braincase in lateral view; B, dorsal view; and C, ventral view (arrowhead indicates location of the constriction of floor of the os basale, if present). D, the sphenethmoid in anterior view; and E, posterior view. F, the os basale in anterior view; and G, posterior view (asterisk indicates the location of the incision of the margin of the otic capsule by the fenestra vestibuli). H, the right medial surface of the os basale revealing the foramina of the antotic wall and of the medial wall of the otic capsule. I–L, the left stapes in natural position. I, lateral view; J, medial view; K, anterior view; and L, posterior view. Scale bars = 1 cm. See Figure 2 for abbreviations.

Figure 1 in Phylogenetic implications of the morphology of the braincase of caecilian amphibians (Gymnophiona)

Figure 1. Previous morphology-based phylogenies of caecilians. A, a consensus tree derived from individual component trees computed in separate smaller analyses and taxonomic descriptions representing the current state of morphologybased caecilian systematics (Wilkinson & Nussbaum, 2006); B, tree derived from 'traditional characters' (Wilkinson, 1997); C, tree derived from 'nontraditional characters' (Wake, 1993); D, tree derived from combined 'traditional' and 'nontraditional' characters, revealing an unconventional topology wherein eye-reduced taxa (Boulengerula, Gegeneophis, Scolecomorphus, and Gymnopis) form a clade (Wilkinson, 1997).

Figure 13. The 50 in Phylogenetic implications of the morphology of the braincase of caecilian amphibians (Gymnophiona)

Figure 13. The 50% majority-rule tree resulting from the Bayesian analysis of the combined morphological and molecular data sets. Node letters correspond to the text, and node values are posterior probabilities.