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3,183 results for “parenting”
Data from: "Green incubation": avian offspring benefit from aromatic nest herbs through improved parental incubation behaviour
Development of avian embryos requires thermal energy, usually from parents. Parents may however trades off catering for embryonic requirements against their own need to forage through intermittent incubation. This dynamically adjusted behaviour can be affected by properties of the nest. Here we experimentally show a novel mechanism by which parents, through incorporation of aromatic herbs into nests, effectively modify their incubation behaviour to the benefit of their offspring. Our study species, the European starling, includes in its nest aromatic herbs which promote offspring fitness. We provided wild starlings with artificial nests including or excluding the typically selected fresh herbs and found strong support for our prediction of facilitated incubation. Herb effects were not explained by thermal changes of the nests per se, but by modified parental behaviours. Egg temperatures and nest attendance were higher in herb than herbless nests, egg temperatures dropped less frequently below critical thresholds, and parents started their active day earlier. These effects were dynamic over time and particularly strong during early incubation. Incubation period was shorter in herb nests, and nestlings were heavier one week after hatching. Aromatic herbs hence influenced incubation in beneficial ways for offspring, possibly through pharmacological effects on incubating parents.
Parental breeding age effects on descendants' longevity interact over two generations in matrilines and patrilines
<p>Individuals within populations vary enormously in mortality risk and longevity, but the causes of this variation remain poorly understood. A potentially important and<br> phylogenetically widespread source of such variation is maternal age at breeding, which typically has negative effects on offspring longevity. Here, we show that paternal<br> age can affect offspring longevity as strongly as maternal age does, and that breeding age effects can interact over two generations in both matrilines and patrilines. We<br> manipulated maternal and paternal ages at breeding over two generations in the neriid fly Telostylinus angusticollis. To determine whether breeding age effects can be<br> modulated by the environment, we also manipulated larval diet and male competitive environment in the first generation. We found separate and interactive effects of<br> parental and grandparental ages at breeding on descendants' mortality rate and lifespan in both matrilines and patrilines. These breeding age effects were not<br> modulated by grandparental larval diet quality or competitive environment. Our findings suggest that variation in maternal and paternal ages at breeding could contribute<br> substantially to intra-population variation in mortality and longevity.</p>
Data from: Parental and hybrid Daphnia from the D. longispina complex: long-term dynamics in genetic structure and significance of overwintering modes
In recent decades, hybridization has become a focus of attention because of its role in evolutionary processes. However, little is known about changes in genetic structure within and between parental species and hybrids over time. Here, we studied processes of genetic change in parental species and hybrids from the Daphnia longispina complex (Crustacea, Cladocera) over a period of six years across ten habitats. These cyclical parthenogens respond to fluctuating environments by switching from asexual to sexual reproduction. Importantly, sexually produced diapausing eggs, which resist extreme conditions such as low temperatures and serve as dispersal stages, are produced to a lower extent by hybrids. Long-term microsatellite data revealed clear differences between hybrids and parental species. In hybrids, clonal diversity values were lower, whereas heterozygosity and linkage disequilibrium values were higher compared to parental species. Clonal diversity of hybrids responded to the strength of the winter, with cold winters resulting in few genotypes in the following spring. In time windows when only asexual hybrid females survive, priority effects will favour the establishment of the hybrid offspring before hatchlings from parental diapause eggs can enter the community. The constant high levels of heterozygosity maintained by clonal reproduction in hybrids might lead to their successful establishment over time, when they are able to escape competition from both parental species. Although we found evidence that hybrids diversity depends on fluctuating environments, a direct link between hybrid abundance and the strength of winter was missing. Because of reduced adaptability in clonally reproducing hybrids, multiple factors must contribute to promoting their long-term success in fluctuating environments.
Data from: Close kin mating, but not inbred parents, reduces hatching rates and offspring quality in a threatened tortoise
Inbreeding depression, the reduction of fitness due to mating of related individuals, is of particular conservation concern in species with small, isolated populations. Although inbreeding depression is widespread in natural populations, long-lived species may be buffered from its effects during population declines due to long generation times, and thus are less likely to have evolved mechanisms of inbreeding avoidance than species with shorter generation times. However, empirical evidence of the consequences of inbreeding in threatened, long-lived species is limited. In this study, we leverage a well-studied population of gopher tortoises, Gopherus polyphemus, to examine the role of inbreeding depression and the potential for behavioral inbreeding avoidance in a natural population of a long-lived species. We tested the hypothesis that increased parental inbreeding leads to reduced hatching rates and offspring quality. Additionally, we tested for evidence of inbreeding avoidance. We found that high parental relatedness results in offspring with lower quality, and that high parental relatedness is correlated with reduced hatching success. However, we found that hatching success and offspring quality increase with maternal inbreeding, likely due to highly inbred females mating with more distantly-related males. We did not find evidence for inbreeding avoidance in males and outbred females, suggesting sex-specific evolutionary tradeoffs may have driven the evolution of mating behavior. Our results demonstrate inbreeding depression in a long-lived species and that the evolution of inbreeding avoidance is shaped by multiple selective forces.
Data from: Sex roles, parental care and offspring growth in two contrasting coucal species
The decision to provide parental care is often associated with trade-offs, because resources allocated to parental care typically cannot be invested in self-maintenance or mating. In most animals, females provide more parental care than males, but the reason for this pattern is still debated in evolutionary ecology. To better understand sex differences in parental care and its consequences we need to study closely related species where the sexes differ in offspring care. We investigated parental care in relation to offspring growth in two closely related coucal species that fundamentally differ in sex roles and parental care, but live in the same food-rich habitat with a benign climate, and have a similar breeding phenology. Incubation patterns differed and uniparental male black coucals fed their offspring two times more often than female and male white-browed coucals combined. Also, white-browed coucals had more `off-times´ than male black coucals, during which they perched and preened. However, these differences in parental care were not reflected in offspring growth, likely because white-browed coucals fed their nestlings a larger proportion of frogs than insects. A food-rich habitat with a benign climate may be a necessary, but – perhaps unsurprisingly – is not a sufficient factor for the evolution of uniparental care. In combination with previous results (Goymann et al. (2015) J. Evol. Biol. 28, 1335-1353) these data suggest that white-browed coucals may cooperate in parental care because they lack opportunities to become polygamous rather than because both parents were needed to successfully raise all offspring. Our case study supports recent theory suggesting that permissive environmental conditions in combination with a particular life-history may induce sexual selection in females. A positive feed-back loop between sexual selection, body size, and adult sex-ratio may then stabilize reversed sex-roles in competition and parental care.
Data from: Estimation of genotyping error rate from repeat genotyping, unintentional recaptures and known parent-offspring comparisons in 16 microsatellite loci for brown rockfish (Sebastes auriculatus)
Genotyping errors are present in almost all genetic data and can affect biological conclusions of a study, particularly for studies based on individual identification and parentage. Many statistical approaches can incorporate genotyping errors, but usually need accurate estimates of error rates. Here, we used a new microsatellite data set developed for brown rockfish (Sebastes auriculatus) to estimate genotyping error using three approaches: (i) repeat genotyping 5% of samples, (ii) comparing unintentionally recaptured individuals and (iii) Mendelian inheritance error checking for known parent–offspring pairs. In each data set, we quantified genotyping error rate per allele due to allele drop-out and false alleles. Genotyping error rate per locus revealed an average overall genotyping error rate by direct count of 0.3%, 1.5% and 1.7% (0.002, 0.007 and 0.008 per allele error rate) from replicate genotypes, known parent–offspring pairs and unintentionally recaptured individuals, respectively. By direct-count error estimates, the recapture and known parent–offspring data sets revealed an error rate four times greater than estimated using repeat genotypes. There was no evidence of correlation between error rates and locus variability for all three data sets, and errors appeared to occur randomly over loci in the repeat genotypes, but not in recaptures and parent–offspring comparisons. Furthermore, there was no correlation in locus-specific error rates between any two of the three data sets. Our data suggest that repeat genotyping may underestimate true error rates and may not estimate locus-specific error rates accurately. We therefore suggest using methods for error estimation that correspond to the overall aim of the study (e.g. known parent–offspring comparisons in parentage studies).
Data from: Male-only care and cuckoldry in black coucals: does parenting hamper sex life?
Providing parental care often reduces additional mating opportunities. Paternal care becomes easier to understand if trade-offs between mating and caring remain mild. The black coucal Centropus grillii combines male-only parental care with 50% of all broods containing young sired by another male. To understand how much caring for offspring reduces a male's chance to sire additional young in other males' nests, we matched the production of extra-pair young in each nest with the periods during which potential extra-pair sires were either caring for offspring themselves or when they had no own offspring to care for. We found that males that cared for a clutch were not fully excluded from the pool of competitors for siring young in other males' nests. Instead, the relative siring success showed a temporary dip. Males were approximately 17% less likely to sire young in other males' nests while they were incubating, about 48% less likely to do so while feeding nestlings, followed by 26% when feeding fledglings, compared to the success of males that currently did not care for offspring. These results suggest that real-life care situations by males may involve trade-off structures that differ from, and are less strict than those frequently employed in theoretical considerations of operational sex ratios, sex roles, and parenting decisions.
Light affects parental provisioning behaviour in a cavity-nesting Passerine
Nocturnal bird species possess special adaptations to maximise visual efficiency under low light levels. However, some typically diurnal species also experience low-light environments. For example, cavity-nesting Passerines raise broods in dark cavities and search for food in light-abundant surroundings. It is not clear whether they possess special adaptations for low light vision or breed in cavities at the expense of impaired parental care. In this study, we tested whether light conditions affect the provisioning efficiency of great tits. We experimentally tested how the level of natural and artificially increased illumination inside nest boxes affects parental feeding duration, frequency and timing. We monitored 15-hours of provisioning activity of great tit parents when nestlings were day 7 post hatch. We used traditional "dark" nest boxes and "bright" nest boxes with increased illumination obtained by using semi-transparent plastic windows. The duration of single feedings were, on average, shorter in brightened nest boxes compared to dark ones. This difference tended to be higher early in the morning and in the evening, when the illumination in dark nest boxes was the lowest. Nest box type, however, did not influence feeding frequency or times of the onset and the end of feeding. Our findings provide new evidence for impaired efficiency of parental care due to lowered light conditions. Further research is needed to test whether prolonged feeding duration has negative effects on adult time budgets and nestling energy expenditures.
Data from: Hybrid speciation by sorting of parental incompatibilities in Italian sparrows
Speciation by hybridization is emerging as a significant contributor to biological diversification. Yet, little is known about the relative contributions of (i) evolutionary novelty and (ii) sorting of preexisting parental incompatibilities to the build-up of reproductive isolation under this mode of speciation. Few studies have addressed empirically whether hybrid animal taxa are intrinsically isolated from their parents, and no study has so far investigated by which of the two aforementioned routes intrinsic barriers evolve. Here, we show that sorting of preexisting parental incompatibilities contributes to intrinsic isolation of a hybrid animal taxon. Using a genomic cline framework, we demonstrate that the sex-linked and mito-nuclear incompatibilities isolating the homoploid hybrid Italian sparrow at its two geographically separated hybrid-parent boundaries represent a subset of those contributing to reproductive isolation between its parent species, house and Spanish sparrows. Should such a sorting mechanism prove to be pervasive, the circumstances promoting homoploid hybrid speciation may be broader than currently thought, and indeed there may be many cryptic hybrid taxa separated from their parent species by sorted, inherited incompatibilities.
Data from: Parental care buffers against effects of ambient temperature on offspring performance in an insect
Understanding how animals respond to and cope with variation in ambient temperature is an important priority. The reason for this is that ambient temperature is a key component of the physical environment that influences offspring performance in a wide range of ectotherms and endotherms. Here, we investigate whether post-hatching parental care provides a behavioral mechanism for buffering against the effects of ambient temperature on offspring in the burying beetle Nicrophorus vespilloides. We used a 3×2 factorial design where we manipulated ambient temperature (15, 20 or 25°C) and parental care (presence or absence of a female parent after hatching). We found that the effect of ambient temperature on offspring performance was conditional upon the presence or absence of a caring female. Fewer larvae survived in the absence than in the presence of a caring female at 15°C whilst there was no difference in larval survival at 20 and 25°C. Our results show that parental care buffers against some of the detrimental effects of variation in ambient temperature on offspring. We suggest that post-hatching parental care may buffer against such effects by creating a more benign environment or by boosting offspring resilience towards stressors. Our results have important implications for our understanding of the evolution of parental care because they suggest that the evolution of parental care could allow species to expand their geographical range to colonize areas with harsher climatic conditions than they otherwise would tolerate.
Data from: Incubation temperature and parental identity determine sex in the Australian agamid lizard Ctenophorus pictus
Sex determination in Australian agamid lizards show a complex framework of different mechanisms, varying even among closely related taxa. It is clear that discrete classification of these species as either having genetic (GSD) or environmental sex determination (ESD) does not agree with empirical data. Although many species in this group show temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD), recent evidence suggests additional genetic or epigenetic effects. A proposed model explaining the adaptive significance and evolution of TSD in short-lived agamids predicts that selection will favor temperature-biased sex ratios in species with intense male-male competition. Here we use experimental incubation at (near) constant temperatures to test whether the sex of Australian painted dragons (Ctenophorus pictus) is influenced by temperature, building on previous research yet to have reached an agreement regarding the role of temperature in this species. In the present study, incubation temperature and parental identity affected hatchling sex suggesting that environment and genetics may work in concert to determine sex in this species. Although our results are consistent with TSD, our data cannot rule out a temperature-by-sex effect on egg or hatchling mortality. However, our findings together with the observed differences of sex determination systems in closely related species within this genus may provide novel opportunities to address fundamental questions in the evolution of sex determination systems.
Data from: The evolution of parental cooperation in birds
Parents in many animal species care for their offspring. In some species, males care more; in other species, females care more; in still other species, the contribution of the sexes is equal. However, we do not know what explains these differences among species. Using the most comprehensive analyses of parental care to date, here we show that parents cooperate more when sexual selection is not intense and the adult sex ratio of males to females is not strongly skewed. However, the degree of parental cooperation is unrelated to harshness and predictability of the ambient environment during the breeding season. Our work therefore suggests that several types of parental care may coexist in a given set of ambient environment.
Data from: A functional trade-off between trophic adaptation and parental care predicts sexual dimorphism in cichlid fish
Although sexual dimorphism is widespread in nature, its evolutionary causes often remain elusive. Here we report a case where a sex-specific conflicting functional demand related to parental care but not to sexual selection explains sexual dimorphism in a primarily trophic structure, the gill rakers of cichlid fishes. More specifically, we examined gill raker length in a representative set of cichlid fish species from Lake Tanganyika featuring three different parental care strategies: (i) uni-parental mouthbrooding, whereby only one parental sex incubates the eggs in the buccal cavity; (ii) bi-parental mouthbrooding, whereby both parents participate in mouthbrooding; and (iii) nest guarding without any mouthbrooding involved. As predicted from these different parental care strategies, we find sexual dimorphism in gill raker length to be present only in uni-parental mouthbrooders, but neither in bi-parental mouthbrooders nor in nest guarders. Moreover, variation in the extent of sexual dimorphism among uni-parental mouthbrooders appears to be related to trophic ecology. Overall, we present a so far unrecognised scenario for the evolution of sexual dimorphism that is not related to sexual selection or initial niche divergence between sexes. Instead, sexual dimorphism in gill raker length in uni-parental mouthbrooding cichlid fish appears to be the consequence of a sex-specific functional trade-off between a trophic function present in both sexes, and a reproductive function present only in the brooding sex.
Data from: Parental coordination with respect to colour polymorphism in a crater lake fish
In many taxa, success in parental care requires the coordinated efforts of both parents. Given the evolutionary potential of parental performance, as well as phenotype-related behavioural differences, it is surprising that parental coordination in polymorphic species has attracted only very limited research attention. To redress this gap, I combined multiple approaches to assess parental performance and coordination of parental effort in the colour polymorphic and biparental cichlid fish, Amphilophus sagittae, in its natural crater lake habitat. I compared parents of the two colour morphs, dark and gold, as well as pairs that had mated colour assortatively ('same colour' pairs) versus disassortatively ('mixed' pairs). The two morphs differed in terms of a higher than expected number of single gold morph parents. Interestingly, parental coordination, in terms of the size of the defended territory and the rate of aggressive responses towards natural territory intruders, was lower in mixed than same colour pairs. Mixed pairs also had their territories in deeper water. However, no pair type differences in early survival of biparentally defended broods were detected. The findings contribute towards a better understanding of the role of parental coordination in polymorphic species, highlighting the importance of considering parental effort, coordination, and performance in the context of the dynamics of (colour) polymorphisms in the wild. Indeed, if the observed behavioural differences will translate into negative fitness effects for mixed pairs, parental performance can also provide a mechanism selecting for colour assortative mating and restricting gene flow under mating regimes that are not completely assortative.
Data from: Extra-pair mating opportunities mediate parenting and mating effort trade-offs in a songbird
<p>In socially monogamous species with bi-parental care, males may face a trade-off between providing parental care and pursuing extra-pair matings. The "parenting-mating trade-off" hypothesis predicts that high-quality males – who have greater potential to gain extra-pair matings, e.g. larger males usually win the competition for extra-pair mating – should reduce parental care and spend more time looking for extra-pair matings. However, the trade-off between parenting and mating efforts may be complicated by variation in the availability of extra-pair mating opportunities. By using field data of hair-crested drongos (<i>Dicrurus hottentottus</i>), a species exhibiting bi-parental incubation behavior, collected in central China from 2010 to 2017, we tested whether the potential negative relationship between male quality and paternal care was dependent on the number of nearby fertile females. We found that male drongos mainly seek extra-pair matings during the incubation period and high-quality individuals (males with longer tarsi) are more likely to sire extra-pair offspring. In agreement with the "parenting-mating trade-off" hypothesis, high-quality males incubated less by recessing longer between incubation bouts. However, this was only the case when sufficient fertile females nearby for extra-pair mating opportunities. Females compensated for reduced male care, but this was independent of male quality. This suggests that the reduction in care by high-quality males might be a direct response to extra-pair mating opportunities rather than facilitated by differential allocation of females. Our results indicate that individual quality and available mating opportunities may shape the optimal trade-off between parental care and seeking additional matings for males.</p>
Data from: Offspring fitness varies with parental extra-pair status in song sparrows, Melospiza melodia
Numerous studies have tested for indirect selection on female extra-pair reproduction (EPR) by quantifying whether extra-pair young (EPY) are fitter than their within-pair young (WPY) maternal half-siblings. In contrast, the hypothesis that offspring of EPY and WPY (rather than the EPY and WPY themselves) differ in fitness has not been tested, even though inter-generational effects of parental extra-pair status on offspring fitness could alter the magnitude and direction of indirect selection on EPR. We tested whether offspring of EPY song sparrows, Melospiza melodia, were more likely to recruit or produce hatched or recruited offspring over their lifetimes than offspring of WPY. Hatchlings with one or two EPY parents were more likely to recruit and produce hatched offspring than hatchlings with two WPY parents. Furthermore, these relationships differed between maternal versus paternal extra-pair status. Hatchlings with EPY fathers were more likely to recruit and produce offspring than hatchlings with WPY fathers. In contrast, hatchlings with EPY mothers were as likely to recruit as hatchlings with WPY mothers and tended to be less likely to produce recruited offspring. Depending on the causal genetic and environmental mechanisms, such conflicting inter-generational relationships between parental extra-pair status and offspring fitness could substantially influence the evolutionary dynamics of EPR.
Data from: Parental frequencies and spatial configuration shape bumblebee behavior and floral isolation in hybridizing Rhinanthus
To shed light on the role played by pollinators in the diversification of angiosperms, focus is needed on how floral isolation varies locally in the early stages of plant divergence. The few studies performed so far have often used species pairs with distinct pollination syndromes and contrasting floral displays. Here, we focus on a hybridizing pair (Rhinanthus minor and R. angustifolius) with strong similarities in flower morphology and pollinators (bumblebees). We examined how ethological isolation changes locally in relation to relative Rhinanthus frequencies, spatial configurations, and pollinator assemblages. Interestingly, floral divergence based on adaptation to different pollinators is unlikely in Rhinanthus: no relationship was found between floral isolation and the local pollinator assemblage. In contrast, species frequency and spatial arrangement strongly influenced bumblebee behavior, ethological isolation, and thus potentially hybrid formation. When both Rhinanthus were present in equal proportions, bees generally preferred the more rewarding and conspicuous species. However, when the Rhinanthus frequencies were unbalanced, the more abundant species was preferred, although this was less pronounced when the less rewarding R. minor predominated. Ethological isolation is highly sensitive to site characteristics, and can be as high as in species with contrasting floral displays and pollinator suites, even though flowers are similar.
Data from: Corticosterone predicts foraging behavior and parental care in macaroni penguins
Corticosterone has received considerable attention as the principal hormonal mediator of allostasis or physiological stress in wild animals. More recently, it has also been implicated in the regulation of parental care in breeding birds, particularly with respect to individual variation in foraging behaviour and provisioning effort. There is also evidence that prolactin can work either inversely or additively with corticosterone to achieve this. Here we test the hypothesis that endogenous corticosterone plays a key physiological role in the control of foraging behaviour and parental care using a combination of exogenous corticosterone treatment, time-depth telemetry, and physiological sampling of female macaroni penguins (Eudyptes chrysolophus) during the brood-guard period of chick rearing, while simultaneously monitoring patterns of prolactin secretion. Plasma corticosterone levels were significantly higher in females given exogenous implants relative to those receiving sham implants. Increased corticosterone levels were associated with significantly higher levels of foraging and diving activity, and greater mass gain in implanted females. Elevated plasma corticosterone was also associated with an apparent fitness benefit in the form of increased chick mass. Plasma prolactin levels did not correlate with corticosterone levels at any time, nor was prolactin correlated with any measure of foraging behaviour or parental care. Our results provide support for the corticosterone-adaptation hypothesis, which predicts that higher corticosterone levels support increased foraging activity and parental effort.
Data from: Post-hatching parental care masks the effects of egg size on offspring fitness: a removal experiment on burying beetles
Parents can increase the fitness of their offspring by allocating nutrients to eggs and/or providing care for eggs and offspring. Although we have a good understanding of the adaptive significance of both egg size and parental care, remarkably little is known about the co-evolution of these two mechanisms for increasing offspring fitness. Here, we report a parental removal experiment on the burying beetle Nicrophorus vespilloides in which we test whether post-hatching parental care masks the effect of egg size on offspring fitness. As predicted, we found that the parent's presence or absence had a strong main effect on larval body mass, while there was no detectable effect of egg size. Furthermore, egg size had a strong and positive effect on offspring body mass in the parent's absence, while it had no effect on offspring body mass in the parent's presence. These results support the suggestion that the stronger effect of post-hatching parental care on offspring growth masks the weaker effect of egg size. We found no correlation between the number and size of eggs. However, there was a negative correlation between larval body mass and brood size in the parent's presence, but not in its absence. These findings suggest that the trade-off between number and size of offspring is shifted from the egg stage towards the end of the parental care period, and that post-hatching parental care somehow moderates this trade-off.
Data from: Evolution of elaborate parental care: phenotypic and genetic correlations between parent and offspring traits
The evolution of elaborate forms of parental care is an important topic in behavioral ecology, yet the factors shaping the evolution of complex suites of parental and offspring traits are poorly understood. Here, we use a multivariate quantitative genetic approach to study phenotypic and genetic correlations between parental and offspring traits in the burying beetle Nicrophorus vespilloides. To this end, we recorded 2 prenatal traits (clutch size and egg size), 2 postnatal parental behaviors (direct care directed toward larvae and indirect care directed toward resource maintenance), 1 offspring behavior (begging), and 2 measures of breeding success (larval dispersal mass and number of dispersing larvae). Females breeding on larger carcasses provided less direct care but produced larger larvae than females breeding on smaller carcasses. Furthermore, there were positive phenotypic correlations between clutch size, direct, and indirect care. Both egg size and direct care were positively correlated with dispersal mass, whereas clutch size was negatively correlated with dispersal mass. Clutch size and number of dispersed larvae showed genetic variance both in terms of differences between populations of origin and significant heritabilities. However, we found no evidence of genetic variance underlying other parental or offspring traits. Our results suggest that correlations between suites of parental traits are driven by variation in individual quality rather than trade-offs, that some parental traits promote offspring growth while others increase the number of offspring produced, and that parental and offspring traits might respond slowly to selection due to low levels of additive genetic variance.
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