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Fig. 15 in Revision and Cladistic Analysis of the Nocturnal Social Wasp Genus, Apoica Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Vespidae; Polistinae, Epiponini)

Fig. 15. Mesonotum with longitudinal stripes: A, Apoica arborea female, absent; B, Apoica strigata, 4 pales stripes, two on either side of the parapsidal furrows. The lateral two stripes are sometimes lacking. C, Apoica ambracarina, two dark stripes, medial to the parapsidal furrows, fusing posteriorly. Scale bars 51.0 mm.

Fig. 14 in Revision and Cladistic Analysis of the Nocturnal Social Wasp Genus, Apoica Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Vespidae; Polistinae, Epiponini)

Fig. 14. Aedeagus: A, Apoica gelida, posterior end of aedeagus widening, B, Apoica arborea, posterior end of aedeagus straight. Scale bars 5 1.0 mm.

Fig. 16 in Revision and Cladistic Analysis of the Nocturnal Social Wasp Genus, Apoica Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Vespidae; Polistinae, Epiponini)

Fig. 16. Strict consensus (L 5 94; CI 5 0.52; RI 5 0.64) of three equally parsimonious topologies (L 5 91; CI 5 0.53; RI 5 0.66) of Apoica spp. and outgroups based on morphology and behavior. Numbers above and below each branch are jackknife and Bremer support values, respectively. Jackknife values below 50% and Bremer values of 1 are not reported.

Fig. 13 in Revision and Cladistic Analysis of the Nocturnal Social Wasp Genus, Apoica Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Vespidae; Polistinae, Epiponini)

Fig. 13. Parameral spine: A, Apoica arborea, parameral spine with setae (1) and posterior lobe of paramere angled (2); B, Apoica ambracarina, parameral spine without setae and posterior lobe of paramere rounded (29). Scale bars 5 1.0 mm.

Fig. 12 in Revision and Cladistic Analysis of the Nocturnal Social Wasp Genus, Apoica Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Vespidae; Polistinae, Epiponini)

Fig. 12. Parameral spine: A, Apoica albimacula, parameral spine thick and blunt; B, Apoica gelida, parameral spine thin and sharp. Both characters 22 and 23 are illustrated here only for efficiency; the different character states from the two characters do not always co-occur as in these species. Scale bars 5 1.0 mm.

Fig. 3 in Revision and Cladistic Analysis of the Nocturnal Social Wasp Genus, Apoica Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Vespidae; Polistinae, Epiponini)

Fig. 3. Metanotum with central carina: A, Apoica thoracica, absent; B, Apoica ambracarina, anterior carina; C, Apoica albimacula, extending posteriorly and sharply carinate. Scale bars 5 1.0 mm.

Fig. 8 in Revision and Cladistic Analysis of the Nocturnal Social Wasp Genus, Apoica Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Vespidae; Polistinae, Epiponini)

Fig. 8. Digitus shape: A, Apoica arborea, posterior surface expanded, forming a triangular shape; B, Apoica strigata, fingerlike and curved. Scale bars 5 1.0 mm.

Fig. 7 in Revision and Cladistic Analysis of the Nocturnal Social Wasp Genus, Apoica Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Vespidae; Polistinae, Epiponini)

Fig. 7. Metanotal bristles in posterior view. A. Apoica arborea, erect. B, Apoica thoracica, apically bent towards midline. Scale bars 5 1.0 mm.

Fig. 1 in Revision and Cladistic Analysis of the Nocturnal Social Wasp Genus, Apoica Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Vespidae; Polistinae, Epiponini)

Fig. 1. Ocelli: A, Polistes fuscatus, typical (small); B, Apoica ambracarina, large. Scale bars 5 1.0 mm.

Fig. 6 in Revision and Cladistic Analysis of the Nocturnal Social Wasp Genus, Apoica Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Vespidae; Polistinae, Epiponini)

Fig. 6. Mesonotal bristles: A, Apoica flavissima, reaching anterior margin; B, Apoica gelida, not reaching anterior margin. Scale bars 5 1.0 mm.

Fig. 5 in Revision and Cladistic Analysis of the Nocturnal Social Wasp Genus, Apoica Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Vespidae; Polistinae, Epiponini)

Fig. 5. Metanotal shape: A, Apoica flavissima, rounded; B, Apoica gelida, angled posteriorly; C, Metapolybia cingulata, flat. Scale bars 5 1.0 mm.

Fig. 4 in Revision and Cladistic Analysis of the Nocturnal Social Wasp Genus, Apoica Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Vespidae; Polistinae, Epiponini)

Fig. 4. Pronotal fovea: A, Apoica flavissima, shallow; B, Apoica thoracica, recessed into a pit. In A, the depression is the fovea. In B, the arrow indicates the border of the larger oval pit into which the fovea itself is recessed. Scale bars 5 1.0 mm.

Fig. 10 in Revision and Cladistic Analysis of the Nocturnal Social Wasp Genus, Apoica Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Vespidae; Polistinae, Epiponini)

Fig. 10. Digitus setae: A, Apoica albimacula, with setae; B, Apoica flavissima, without setae. Scale bars 5 1.0 mm.

Fig. 9 in Revision and Cladistic Analysis of the Nocturnal Social Wasp Genus, Apoica Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Vespidae; Polistinae, Epiponini)

Fig. 9. Digitus tip: A, Apoica ambracarina, rounded; B, Apoica gelida, pointed. Scale bars 5 1.0 mm.

Fig. 11 in Revision and Cladistic Analysis of the Nocturnal Social Wasp Genus, Apoica Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Vespidae; Polistinae, Epiponini)

Fig. 11. Digitus contact with cupsis: Dark spots appearing on both digitus and cuspis correspond to places of potential contact. A, Apoica albimacula, unmodified relative to other Polistinae, expanded posteriorly (see above), the region of the digitus that is positionally most similar to the apical tip of the digitus in other Apoica (indicated by arrows) contacts the cuspis; B, Apoica thoracica, representing the modified, restricted digitus shape, contacting apically; C, Apoica pallida, contacting medially, with the tip extending freely beyond the body of the cuspis. Scale bars 5 1.0 mm.

Figs. 1–6 in Phylogenetic Relationships Among Yellowjackets and the Evolution of Social Parasitism (Hymenoptera: Vespidae, Vespinae)

Figs. 1–6. Characters of yellowjackets. 1–2, clypeus. 1, V. rufa (Linnaeus). 2, Vespula austriaca (Panzer). 3–4, head in frontal view. 3, Dolichovespula sylvestris (Scopoli). 4, D. norvegicoides (Sladen). 5–6, head in lateral view. 5, V. pensylvanica (de Saussure). 6, V. vidua (de Saussure). All scale bars equal 1 mm.

Fig. 19 in Phylogenetic Relationships Among Yellowjackets and the Evolution of Social Parasitism (Hymenoptera: Vespidae, Vespinae)

Fig. 19. Cladogram resulting from analysis of all the characters in table 1. Characters have been optimized with only unambiguous changes plotted. Character numbers are above the hashmarks; state changes are shown below, with the respective primitive and derived conditions separated by a ''.''. Filled hashmarks denote uncontroverted changes, whereas open hashmarks indicate homoplasy in the character. Characters supporting the monophyly of yellowjackets as a whole are not plotted. This cladogram also results from analysis of only the morphological characters in table 1.

Figs. 13–18 in Phylogenetic Relationships Among Yellowjackets and the Evolution of Social Parasitism (Hymenoptera: Vespidae, Vespinae)

Figs. 13–18. Characters of yellowjackets. 13–14, mandibular teeth. 13, Vespula shidai Ishikawa, Yamane and Wagner. 14, Dolichovespula saxonica (Fabricius). 15–18, mesosoma in lateral view. 15, D. adulterina (du Buysson). 16, Dolichovespula maculata (Linnaeus). 17, V. rufa (Linnaeus). 18, V. germanica (Fabricius). All scale bars equal 1 mm.

Fig. 20 in Phylogenetic Relationships Among Yellowjackets and the Evolution of Social Parasitism (Hymenoptera: Vespidae, Vespinae)

Fig. 20. Cladogram resulting from analysis of the behavioral characters in table 1, with the three inquiline species deleted.

Fig. 21 in Phylogenetic Relationships Among Yellowjackets and the Evolution of Social Parasitism (Hymenoptera: Vespidae, Vespinae)

Fig. 21. Cladogram for yellowjacket species, with usurpation behavior optimized. State changes are shown below squares, with the respective primitive and derived conditions separated by a ''.''. Grayscaled squares denote convergent changes whereas open squares indicate reversal.