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240 results for “Plant reproduction”
Timing of a plant–herbivore interaction alters plant growth and reproduction
<p>Phenological shifts in timing of species interactions have the potential to change size-structured species interactions, but relatively few studies have used experimental manipulations to examine the season-long effects of phenological mismatches in multiple development contexts. While previous experimental studies have examined how phenological mismatches in plant-herbivore interactions can affect both plants and their herbivores, less is known about their effects on subsequent plant-pollinator interactions. Here, we conducted an experiment to determine how shifts in the phenological timing of monarch (<i>Danaus plexippus</i>) larval herbivory affected milkweed (<i>Asclepias fascicularis</i>) host plant performance, including effects on growth and subsequent effects on flower and seed pod phenology and production. We found that variation in the timing of herbivory affected both plant growth and reproduction, with measurable effects several weeks to months after herbivory ended. The timing of herbivory had qualitatively different effects on vegetative and reproductive biomass: early-season herbivory had the strongest effects on plant size, while late-season herbivory had the strongest effects on the production of viable seeds. These results show that phenological shifts in herbivory can have persistent and qualitatively different effects on different life stages across the season.</p>
Directed endozoochorous dispersal by scavengers facilitate sexual reproduction in otherwise clonal plants at cadaver sites
<ol> <li>The regeneration niche of many plant species involves spatially and temporally unpredictable disturbances, called recruitment windows of opportunity. However, even species with clear dispersal adaptations such as fleshy berries may not successfully reach such elusive regeneration microsites. Ericaceous, berry-producing species in the northern hemisphere demonstrate this dispersal limitation. They are said to display a reproductive paradox owing to their lack of regeneration in apparently suitable microsites despite considerable investment in producing large quantities of berries.</li> <li>Cadavers generate vegetation-denuded and nutrient-rich disturbances termed cadaver decomposition islands. Cadavers attract facultative scavengers with considerable capacity for endozoochorous seed dispersal. We hypothesize that cadaver decomposition islands facilitate recruitment in berry-producing ericaceous species due to endozoochorous dispersal directed towards favorable microsites with low competition.</li> <li>We examined seedling establishment within a permanent, semi-regular 10 × 10 m grid across an ungulate mass die-off on the Hardangervidda plateau in southeastern Norway. Competing models regarding the relative importance of factors governing recruitment were evaluated, specifically cadaver location (elevated seed rain) and microsite conditions (competition).</li> <li>We found that cadaver decomposition islands did facilitate seedling establishment, as cadaver density was the best predictor of seedling distribution. Other important factors governing seedling establishment such as percentage cover of soil and vascular plants alone were inadequate to explain seedling establishment.</li> <li> <i>Synthesis:</i> This study provides a novel understanding of sexual reproduction in species with cryptic generative reproduction. The directed nature of endozoochorous dispersal combined with long-distance dispersal abilities of medium to large vertebrate scavengers towards cadavers allows plants to exploit the advantageous but ephemeral resource provided by cadaver decomposition islands.</li> </ol>
Agroecological farming, flowering phenology and the pollinator-herbivore-parasitoid nexus regulate non-crop plant reproduction
<p>Agroecological farming uses crop and non-crop plant biodiversity to promote beneficial insects supplying pollination and biocontrol services to crops. Non-crop plants (sown or weeds) are integral to supporting these beneficial insect species interactions. How the uplift of biotic complexity by agroecological management (crop diversification, ecological infrastructure) influences mutualistic and antagonistic insect interactions regulating the reproduction of non-crop plants remains less understood. </p> <p>Using a pesticide-free farm-scale (125 ha) agroecological experiment, we tested how the individual reproduction of pollinator-dependent, non-crop plant species with different flowering phenology (<em>Cyanus segetum, Centaurea jacea</em>) and their mutualistic (pollinator) and antagonistic (seed herbivore–parasitoid) insect interactions were affected by agroecological practices. </p> <p>Seed set and species interactions of replicate <em>C. segetum</em> and <em>C. jacea</em> randomly introduced to field margins was correlated with floral resource heterogeneity at focal plant (e.g., flower display size), local community (floral richness/abundance driven by sown wildflower or grass margins), and local landscape (crop diversification, area of semi-natural habitat or mass flowering crops) scales. </p> <p>At the seasonal peak of non-crop floral diversity and abundance, antagonistic interactions weakly regulated <em>C. segetum</em> seed set with gains from pollinator activity predominating. Conversely, <em>C. jacea</em>, which flowered past the peak of non-crop floral diversity/abundance benefited from the promotion of seed herbivore parasitism and pollinator activity by the local landscape cover of semi-natural habitat and mass flowering crops.</p> <p>Synthesis and applications. Agroecological management produced spatial and-temporal gradients in crop and non-crop floral resources that interacted to modify pollinator or seed herbivore-parasitoid interactions and seed set of <em>Cyanus segetum</em> and <em>Centaurea jacea</em> plants. The degree of phenological overlap between <em>C. segetum</em> and <em>C. jacea</em> flowering and floral resources in the local community or landscape dictated the type and level of exposure to insect interactions influencing reproduction. Design of agroecological practices to deliver pollination and biocontrol services must consider how effects will vary with species traits and the ensemble of mutualistic (pollination) and antagonistic (herbivory, parasitism) interactions governing non-crop plant reproduction. Agroecological management supporting beneficial insect interactions may feedback to help restore functional non-crop plant populations and associated biodiversity, potentially reducing the frequency of management interventions (e.g., re-sowing wildflower strips). </p>
Flower plantings support wild bee reproduction and may also mitigate pesticide exposure effects
<p>1. Sustainable agriculture relies on pollinators, and wild bees benefit yield of multiple crops. However, the combined exposure to pesticides and loss of flower resources, driven by agricultural intensification, contribute to declining diversity and abundance of many bee taxa. Flower plantings along the margins of agricultural fields offer diverse food resources not directly treated with pesticides.</p> <p>2. To investigate the potential of flower plantings to mitigate bee pesticide exposure effects and support bee reproduction, we selected replicated sites in intensively farmed landscapes where half contained flower plantings. We assessed solitary bee <em>Osmia lignaria</em> and bumble bee <em>Bombus vosnesenskii</em> nesting and reproduction throughout the season in these landscapes. We also quantified local and landscape flower resources and used bee-collected pollen to determine forage resource use and pesticide exposure and risk.</p> <p>3. Flower plantings, and their local flower resources, increased <em>O. lignaria</em> nesting probability. <em>Bombus vosnesenskii</em> reproduction was more strongly related to landscape than local flower resources.</p> <p>4. Bees at sites with and without flower plantings experienced similar pesticide risk, and the local flowers, alongside flowers in the landscape, were sources of pesticide exposure particularly for <em>O. lignaria</em>. However, local flower resources mitigated negative pesticide effects on <em>B. vosnesenskii</em> reproduction.</p> <p>5. <em>Synthesis and applications</em>. Bees in agricultural landscapes are threatened by pesticide exposure and loss of flower resources through agricultural intensification. Therefore, finding solutions to mitigate negative effects of pesticide use and flower deficiency is urgent. Our findings point towards flower plantings as a potential solution to support bee populations by mitigating pesticide exposure effects and providing key forage. Further investigation of the balance between forage benefits and added pesticide risk is needed to reveal contexts where net benefits occur.</p>
The expression of demographic costs of reproduction varies among coexisting plants with different life history traits
<p><span>1. </span><span>Demographic costs of reproduction in flowering plants should depend on life history and reproductive effort, but how the expression of costs varies with life history traits is poorly understood.</span></p> <p><span>2. </span><span>We experimentally increased and reduced reproductive effort (fruit production) to quantify demographic costs of reproduction in four coexisting species with contrasting growth forms (clonal vs. nonclonal) and flower production (single- vs. multi-flowered). We repeated the experiment in three years, and measured demographic rates the year after treatment. In two years, we also quantified costs of flower maintenance by contrasting the performance of nonfruiting plants with intact flowers and plants with their flowers removed.</span></p> <p><span>3. </span><span>Costs varied among species, in both magnitude and demographic rate affected. Costs of natural reproduction were expressed as reductions in size and fecundity next year, whereas increased reproduction additionally reduced sprouting probability. The magnitude of demographic costs of both reproduction and flower maintenance was highest in the nonclonal, multi-flowered species, and costs were more frequently detected in the two multi-flowered species than in the single-flowered ones. This may be explained by higher biomass allocation to reproductive parts and a longer flowering period in the former. Demographic costs of reproduction did not depend on clone size.</span></p> <p><span>4. </span><span>These results document that demographic costs vary among coexisting species sharing similar niches, and are associated with divergence in life history traits. Such trait-dependent variation in costs may reduce competition among coexisting species and facilitate diversity.</span></p>
Ineffectiveness of ants in the reproductive success of two sympatric myrmecophilous plants: the success of endophytic beetles
<p>Extrafloral nectaried plants attract ants, which may protect them against herbivory and increase plant fruit set production. In some cases, however, ants are ineffective against herbivores. Such events occur, for instance, when herbivores present adaptations to avoid ant predation. Thus, the outputs of these interactions depend on factors such as ant identity, plant phenology, and herbivore features. Here, we investigated the endophytic florivorous beetles’ impact on the reproductive success of their host plants, two sympatric <em>Banisteriopsis</em> (Malpighiaceae) species, depending on the action of EFNs visiting ants. We experimentally manipulated the presence of ants and herbivores on <em>B. malifolia</em> and <em>B. laevifolia</em> species during their reproductive period. We performed treatments where three similar inflorescences were selected to be (I) control branch, with no manipulations, (II) beetle-free branch, isolated with textile cover, and (III) ant-free branch, isolated at the base with atoxic wax. As a result, we observed (i) that florivorous <em>Anthonomus</em> beetles have a negative impact on <em>Banisteriopsis</em> reproductive success; (ii) ants fail in protecting plants against floral endophytic beetles; and (iii) most of the results were specie-specific. Our results indicate that these systems present very conditional outcomes that depend on THE intrinsic factors of each plant species.</p>
Pollen limitation of native plant reproduction in an urban landscape
<p><strong>Premise</strong>: Evidence suggests that bees may benefit from moderate levels of human development. However, the effects of human development on pollination and reproduction of bee-pollinated plants are less well understood. Studies have measured natural variation in pollination and plant reproduction as a function of urbanization, but few have experimentally measured the magnitude of pollen limitation in urban versus non-urban sites. Doing so is important to unambiguously link changes in pollination to plant reproduction. Previous work in the Southeastern US found that urban sites supported twice the abundance of bees compared to non-urban sites. We tested the hypothesis that greater bee abundance in some of the same urban sites translates into reduced pollen limitation compared to non-urban sites.</p> <p><strong>Methods</strong>: We manipulated pollination to three native, wild-growing, bee-pollinated plants: <em>Gelsemium sempervirens</em>, <em>Oenothera fruticosa</em>, and <em>Campsis radicans</em>. Using supplemental pollinations, we tested for pollen limitation of three components of female reproduction in paired urban and non-urban sites. We also measured pollen receipt as a proxy for pollinator visitation.</p> <p><strong>Results</strong>: We found that all three plant species were pollen-limited for some measures of female reproduction. However, opposite to our original hypothesis, two of the three species were more pollen-limited in urban relative to non-urban sites. We found that open-pollinated flowers in urban sites received less conspecific and more heterospecific pollen on average than those in non-urban sites.</p> <p><strong>Conclusions</strong>: These results suggest that even when urban sites have more abundant pollinators, this may not alleviate pollen limitation of native plant reproduction in urban landscapes.</p>
Flower position within plants influences reproductive success both directly and via phenology
<div> <p>This data set includes data from recordings of 5883 individual flowers of the perennial herb <em>Lathyrus vernus</em> belonging to 558 flowering events (i.e. one plant individual flowering in one year) over three years (1987-1989). It includes data on phenology, reproductive succress and seed predation of individual flowers, as well as data on the position of the flower within the raceme, and of the raceme within the plant. The data wree collected in a population of<em> L. vernus</em> located in a deciduous forest in southeast Sweden (58.9496 N, 17.6097 E). </p> <p> </p> </div>
Data and code for "Loss of pollinator diversity consistently reduces reproductive success for wild and cultivated plants"
<p>Data and code for "Loss of pollinator diversity consistently reduces reproductive success for wild and cultivated plants"</p>
Interspecific interactions regulate plant reproductive allometry in cereal-legume intercropping systems
<p>1. Calls for the application of ecological principles in agriculture have gained momentum. Intercropping systems are designed by growing two, or more, annual crop species in the same field, aiming for a better resource use efficiency. However, assembly rules for their design are lacking. Notably, it is unknown whether species performances are maximized during both the vegetative and reproductive phases given the sensitivity of reproductive allocation rules to resource limitation. Interestingly, ecological theory provides expectations regarding putative invariance of plant reproductive allometry (PRA) under non-limiting conditions for plant growth. Here we examined whether and how PRA changes in response to plant-plant interactions in intercropping systems, which can inform both ecological theory and the understanding of the functioning of intercropping systems.</p> <p>2. We analyzed a dataset of 28 field cereal-legume intercropping trials from various climatic and management conditions across Western Europe. PRA was quantified in both mixing and single-species situations.</p> <p>3. PRA was positively impacted in specific management conditions, leading to a greater increase in yield for a given increase in plant size. Variations in PRA were more beneficial for legumes grown in unfertilized mixtures, which explains their use as a key component in actual intercropping systems. The response for cereals was similar but less pronounced in magnitude, and was greater under resource limiting conditions. Focusing on intercropping conditions, hierarchical competition (indicated by biomass difference between intercropped species) appears as a strong driver of the reproductive output of a given species.</p> <p>4. Synthesis and applications. PRA behaves in crop species in the same way as it does in wild species. However, contrary to theoretical expectations about an overall invariance of PRA, we highlighted taxon-specific and context-dependent effects of plant-plant interactions on PRA. This systematic deviation to PRA expectations could be leveraged to cultivate each species up to its reproductive optimum while accounting for the performance of the other, whether farmer's objective is to favor one species or to reach an equilibrium in seed production. Sowing density and cultivar choice could regulate the biomass of each component, with specific targets derived from allometric relationships, aiming for an optimal reproductive allocation in mixtures.21-Jul-2021</p>
Heterospecific pollen deposition is positively associated with reproductive success in a diverse hummingbird-pollinated plant community
<p>Heterospecific pollen deposition (HPD) is ubiquitous across plant communities, especially for generalized species which use a diversity of pollinators, and may have negative effects on plant reproduction. However, it is unclear whether temporal changes in the co-flowering community result in changes in HPD patterns. Moreover, community-level studies are required to understand which factors influence HPD and how the reproduction of different species is affected. We investigated the temporal variation of HPD, its relationship with level of specialization on pollinators and floral phenotypic specialization, and its association with reproductive success (pollen limitation and fruit set) in 31 hummingbird-pollinated plant species in a tropical Campo Rupestre. We found seasonality in HPD, with species flowering in the dry season having greater diversity of heterospecific pollen on stigmas and a higher frequency of stigmas containing heterospecific pollen, compared to the rainy season. Stigmas of ecologically generalized species had more heterospecific pollen, while the relationship for ecologically specialized species depended on floral phenotype. Surprisingly, and in contrast to theory, we found a positive relationship between HPD and reproductive success. Our results indicate benefits of generalization and facilitation, in which sharing pollinators brings greater reproductive success via increased conspecific pollen deposition, even if it incurs more HPD. We demonstrated how assessing HPD at a community-level can contribute to understanding the ecological causes and functional consequences of pollinator sharing.</p>
Data from: Multiple introductions, polyploidy and mixed reproductive strategies are linked to genetic diversity and structure in the most widespread invasive plant across Southern Ocean archipelagos
<p><span>Biological invasions in remote</span> <span>areas that experience low human activity provide unique opportunities to elucidate processes responsible for invasion success. Here we study the most widespread invasive plant species across the isolated islands of the Southern Ocean, the annual bluegrass, Poa annua. To </span><span>analyze</span><span> geographic variation in genome size, genetic diversity, and reproductive strategies, we sampled all major sub-Antarctic archipelagos in this region and generated microsatellite data for 470 individual plants representing 31 populations. We also estimated genome sizes for a subset of individuals using flow cytometry. Occasional events of island colonization are expected to result in high genetic structure among islands, overall low genetic diversity, and increased self-fertilization, but we show that this is not the case for Poa annua. Microsatellite data indicated low population genetic structure and lack of isolation-by-distance</span> <span>among the sub-Antarctic archipelagos we sampled, but high population structure within each archipelago. We identified high levels of genetic diversity, low clonality, and low selfing rates in sub-Antarctic P. annua populations (contrary to rates typical of continental populations). In turn, estimates of autogamy declined in populations as genetic diversity increased. Additionally, we found that most P. annua individuals are likely tetraploid and that only slight variation exists in genome size across the Southern Ocean. Our findings suggest multiple independent introductions of P. annua into the sub-Antarctic, which</span> <span>promoted the establishment of genetically diverse populations. Despite multiple introductions, the adoption of convergent reproductive strategies (outcrossing) happened independently in each major archipelago. The combination of polyploidy and a mixed reproductive strategy likely benefited P. annua in the Southern Ocean by increasing genetic diversity and its ability to cope with the novel environmental conditions.</span></p>
Data from: Meta-analysis of the effects of insect pathogens: Implications for plant reproduction
<p>Despite extensive work on both insect disease and plant reproduction, there is little research on the intersection of the two. Insect-infecting pathogens could disrupt the pollination process by affecting pollinator population density or traits. Pathogens may also infect insect herbivores and change herbivory, potentially altering resource allocation to plant reproduction. We conducted a meta-analysis to 1) summarize the literature on the effects of pathogens on insect pollinators and herbivores and 2) quantify the extent to which pathogens affect insect traits, with potential repercussions for plant reproduction. We found 39 articles that fit our criteria for inclusion, extracting 218 measures of insect traits for 21 different insect species exposed to 25 different pathogens. We detected a negative effect of pathogen exposure on insect traits, which varied by host function: pathogens had a significant negative effect on insects that were herbivores or carried multiple functions but not on insects that solely functioned as pollinators. Particular pathogen types were heavily studied in certain insect orders, with 7 of 11 viral pathogen studies conducted in Lepidoptera and 5 of 9 fungal pathogen studies conducted in Hymenoptera. Our results suggest that most studies have focused on a small set of host–pathogen pairs. To understand the implications for plant reproduction, future work is needed to directly measure the effects of pathogens on pollinator effectiveness.</p>
Data from: Phenotypic clines in herbivore resistance and reproductive traits in wild plants along an agricultural gradient
<p>The conversion of natural landscapes to agriculture is a leading cause of biodiversity loss worldwide. While many studies examine how landscape modification affects species diversity, a trait-based approach can provide new insights into species responses to environmental change. Wild plants persisting in heavily modified landscapes provide a unique opportunity to examine species' responses to land use change. Trait expression within a community plays an important role in structuring species interactions, highlighting the potential implications of landscape mediated trait changes on ecosystem functioning. Here we test the effect of increasing agricultural landscape modification on defensive and reproductive traits in three commonly occurring Brassicaceae species to evaluate plant responses to landscape change. We collected seeds from populations at spatially separated sites with variation in surrounding agricultural land cover and grew them in a greenhouse common garden, measuring defensive traits through an herbivore no-choice bioassay as well as reproductive traits such as flower size and seed set. In two of the three species, plants originating from agriculturally dominant landscapes expressed a consistent reduction in flower size and herbivore leaf consumption. One species also showed reduced fitness associated with increasingly agricultural landscapes. These findings suggest that wild plants are responding to landscape modification, highlighting that species diversity alone does not fully capture the effects of land use change. </p>
Long-term livestock exclusion increases plant richness and reproductive capacity in arid woodlands
<p><strong>Aim</strong></p> <p>Herbivore exclusion is implemented globally to recover ecosystems from grazing by introduced and native herbivores, but evidence for large-scale biodiversity benefits is inconsistent in arid ecosystems. We examined the effects of livestock exclusion on dryland plant richness and reproductive capacity.</p> <p><strong>Location</strong></p> <p>Central Australia.</p> <p><strong>Methods</strong></p> <p>We collected data on plant species richness and seeding (reproductive capacity), rainfall, vegetation productivity and cover, soil health, and herbivore grazing intensity from 68 sites across 6500 km<sup>2</sup> of arid Georgina gidgee (<em>Acacia</em> <em>georginae</em>) woodlands between 2017 and 2020. Sites were on an actively grazed cattle station and two destocked conservation reserves. We used structural equation modelling to examine indirect (via soil or vegetation modification) versus direct (herbivory) effects of grazing intensity by two introduced herbivores (cattle, camels) and a native herbivore (red kangaroo), on seasonal plant species richness and seeding.</p> <p><strong>Results</strong></p> <p>Soil health and rainfall were the strongest drivers of variation in richness and seeding. Cattle and camel grazing indirectly led to lower seasonal richness and seeding by reducing soil health. Kangaroos had a small but negative direct impact on richness, but no impact on soil health. Both introduced and native herbivores reduced annual chenopod shrub richness and seeding, whereas only cattle directly reduced perennial shrub richness and seeding. Camels indirectly reduced perennial shrub richness by impacting shrub abundance. Introduced herbivores reduced native grass richness and seeding indirectly via impacts on soil health, whereas forbs responded positively to cattle and camel activity.</p> <p><strong>Main conclusion</strong></p> <p>Considering indirect impacts improves evaluations of the effects of disturbances on biodiversity, as focusing only on direct effects can mask critical mechanisms of change. Our results indicate substantial biodiversity benefits from excluding livestock and controlling camels in drylands. Reducing introduced herbivore impacts will improve soil and vegetation condition, ensure reproduction and seasonal persistence of species, and protect native plant diversity.</p>
Warmer springs increase potential for temporal reproductive isolation among habitat patches in subalpine flowering plants
<ol> <li>Flowering phenology can vary considerably even at fine spatial scales, potentially leading to temporal reproductive isolation among habitat patches. Climate change could alter flowering synchrony, and hence temporal isolation, if plants in different microhabitats vary in their phenological response to climate change. Despite the importance of temporal isolation in determining patterns of gene flow, and hence population genetic structure and local adaptation, little is known about how changes in climate affect temporal isolation within populations.</li> <li>Here, we use flowering phenology and floral abundance data of 50 subalpine plant species over 44 years to test whether temporal isolation between habitat patches is affected by spring temperature. For each species and year, we analyzed temporal separation in peak flowering and flowering overlap between habitat patches separated by 5 to 950 m.</li> <li>Across our study species, warmer springs were associated with more temporal differentiation in flowering peaks among habitat patches, and less flowering overlap, increasing potential for temporal isolation within populations.</li> <li> <em>Synthesis</em>. By reducing opportunities for mating among plants in nearby habitat patches, our results suggest that warmer springs may reduce opportunities for gene flow within populations, and, consequently, the capacity of plant populations to adapt to environmental changes.</li> </ol>
Quantifying the complexity of plant reproductive structures reveals a history of morphological and functional integration
Vascular plant reproductive structures have become more complex through time, evolving differentiated parts that interact in specialized ways. But quantifying these patterns at broad scales is challenging because lineages produce disparate reproductive structures that cannot readily be compared. We develop a novel approach for analyzing interactions within reproductive structures using networks, treating component parts as nodes and a suite of physical and functional interactions among parts as edges. We apply this approach to the plant fossil record, showing that interactions have generally increased through time and that the concentration of these interactions has shifted towards differentiated surrounding organs, resulting in more compact, functionally integrated structures. Such transference of function and morphological differentiation are widespread across plant lineages, but their extent and timing vary with reproductive biology; seed-producing structures show them more strongly than spore or pollen-producing structures. More broadly, our results demonstrate that major reproductive innovations like the origin of seeds and angiospermy were associated with increased integration and interactions among parts. However, they also reveal that for certain lineages, such as Mesozoic gymnosperms, millions of years elapsed between the origin of a reproductive innovation and a measurable increase in the integration and interaction among parts within their reproductive structures.
Nectar robbing by bees affects the reproductive fitness of the distylous plant Tirpitzia sinensis (Linaceae)
<p><span>Nectar robbing can affect plant reproductive success directly by influencing female and male fitness, and indirectly by affecting pollinator behavior. Flowers have morphological and chemical features that may protect them from nectar robbers. Previous studies on nectar robbing have focused mainly on homotypic plants. It remains unclear how nectar robbing affects the reproductive success of distylous plants, and whether defense strategies of two morphs are different. Nectar robbing rates on the long- and short- styled morph (L-morph, S-morph) of the distylous <em>Tirpitzia sinensis</em> were investigated. We compared floral traits, the temporal pattern of change in nectar volume and sugar concentration, nectar secondary metabolites and sugar composition between robbed and unrobbed flowers of two morphs. We tested direct effects of nectar robbing on female and male components of plant fitness and the indirect effects of nectar robbing via pollinators. Nectar robbing rates did not differ between the two morphs. Flowers with smaller sepals and petals were more easily robbed. The floral tube diameter and thickness were greater in L-morphs than in S-morphs, and the nectar rob holes were significantly smaller in L-morphs than in S-morphs. Nectar robbing significantly decreased nectar replenishment rate but did not affect nectar sugar concentration or sugar composition. After robbery the quantities and diversity of secondary compounds in the nectar of S-morphs increased significantly and the total relative contents of secondary compounds in L-morphs showed no obvious changes. Nectar robbing could decrease female fitness by decreasing pollen germination and thus decreasing seed set. Nectar robbing had no significant effects on male fitness. Robbed flowers were less likely to be visited by hawkmoth pollinators, especially in S-morphs. These results suggest that nectar robbing could directly and indirectly decrease the female fitness of <em>T. sinensis</em>, and different morphs have evolved different defense mechanisms in response to nectar robbing pressure.</span></p>
Agroecological farming, flowering phenology and the pollinator-herbivore-parasitoid nexus regulate non-crop plant reproduction
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Data from: Consequences of multiple flower-insect interactions for subsequent plant-insect interactions and plant reproduction
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