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Figure 5 in Long-bone geometry in columnar-limbed animals: allometry of the proboscidean appendicular skeleton

Figure 5. Independent contrasts reduced major axis (RMA) regression plots for the total sample of proboscideans. Slopes and correlations, respectively, are 1.079 and 0.902 (humerus), 0.961 and 0.841 (ulna), 0.761 and 0.857 (femur), and 0.828 and 0.873 (tibia).

Figure 3 in Long-bone geometry in columnar-limbed animals: allometry of the proboscidean appendicular skeleton

Figure 3. Morphometric comparisons of humereral and femoral proportions., Loxodonta africana; A, Elephas maximus, Z, Mammuthus (columbi, imperator, meridionalis, and primigenius); Δ, gomphotheres s.l. (Archaeobelodon filholi, Cuvieronius hyodon, Eubelodon morrilli, Gomphotherium angustidens, Gomphotherium productum, Mammut americanum, Serbelodon barbourensis, and Stegomastodon platensis).

Figure 2 in Long-bone geometry in columnar-limbed animals: allometry of the proboscidean appendicular skeleton

Figure 2. Phylogenetic tree structure of the 19 included proboscidean genera, along with inferred clade ages. References used in constructing the tree topology and assigning clade ages were Tassy & Pickford (1983), Tassy (1994, 1995a, b, c), Lister (1995), Kalb et al. (1995), Lambert (1995), Saunders (1995), Shoshani (1995b), Shoshani & Tassy (1995b), Shoshani et al. (1995, 1998), Tobien (1995), Todd & Roth (1995), Gheerbrant et al. (1996), and Thomas et al. (2000).

Figure 1 in Long-bone geometry in columnar-limbed animals: allometry of the proboscidean appendicular skeleton

Figure 1. Proboscidean limb bones: 1–5, humeri; 6–10, femora. 1 and 6, Loxodonta africana; 2 and 7, Elephas maximus; 3 and 8, Mammuthus imperator; 4 and 9, Stegomastodon superbus; 5 and 10, Mammut americanum.

Figure 7 in New Proboscideans (Mammalia) from the middle Miocene of Thailand

Figure 7. Chronostratigraphic distribution of the main proboscidean species cited in the text. Thailand: age of Mae Moh from Benammi et al. (2002) (full line) and P. Coster, M. Benammi, Y. Chaimanee, O. Chavasseau, E.G. Emonet & J.J Jaeger (unpubl. data) (dashed line). Age of Tha Chang (sensu Khoratpithecus fauna) from Chaimanee et al. (2004). Age of Ban Na Sai, Mae Long and Chiang Muan, this paper. Potwar plateau of the Siwaliks of Pakistan: stratigraphic chart from Barry et al. (2002), species ranges from Tassy (1983a, b, c) recalibrated with the scale of Barry et al. (2002). China: data from Tobien et al. (1986), Qiu (1990), Deng (2006) and Saegusa et al. (2005).

Figure 3 in New Proboscideans (Mammalia) from the middle Miocene of Thailand

Figure 3. Gomphotherium cf. browni. A, TF 6266b left hemimandible with M/3: A1, lingual view; A2, occlusal view; A3, labial view. B, TF 6266b: detail of the M/3 in occlusal view. C, TF 6270 right P4/ (occlusal view). D, TF 6267a left M3/ in occlusal view. E, TF 6269 left M3/ in occlusal view. F, TF 6266a right M3/ in occlusal view. G, TF 6268 left M3/ in occlusal view. Abbreviations: dm, deep masseter; fm, foramen mentale; r, retromolar gap; s, symphysis; so, socket of M/2. Scale bars: A = 10 cm, B and C = 1 cm, D–G = 5 cm.

Figure 2 in New Proboscideans (Mammalia) from the middle Miocene of Thailand

Figure 2. Tooth nomenclature adopted in this article schematized on TF 6266, a right M3/ of Gomphotherium cf. browni. Abbreviations: ac, anterior cingulum; amc, anterior median (accessory) conule; c, cingulum; ls, lateral sulcus; mc, main cone; me, mesoconelet; ms, median sulcus; pb, posterior bulge; pmc, posterior median (accessory) conule; t, talon; twf, trefoil wear figure.

Figure 1. A in New Proboscideans (Mammalia) from the middle Miocene of Thailand

Figure 1. A, map of Thailand showing the main area of study (box). The fossiliferous area of Tha Chang, briefly discussed in this paper, is indicated by a star. B, map of the intermontane basin of north-western Thailand (modified from Uttamo, 2000). The stars indicate the fossiliferous localities mentioned in the text.

Figure 5. Stegolophodon praelatidens. A in New Proboscideans (Mammalia) from the middle Miocene of Thailand

Figure 5. Stegolophodon praelatidens. A, TF 6271 left and right hemimandibles with M/3: A1, TF 6271a left hemimandible in occlusal view. Box: lateral view of the anterior portion showing the beginning of the tusk socket; A2, TF 6271c right hemimandible in lateral view; A3, TF 6271c in occlusal view. B, TF 6272 left M/1 or M/2 in occlusal view. C, TF 6271f left M3/ in occlusal view. D, TF 6274 left M?3/ in occlusal view. E, TF 6275 left M/3 (occlusal view). F, TF 6276a, right M/2-M/3 in occlusal view. G, TF 6277 right P4/ (occlusal view). H, TF 6278 right P/3-P/4 in occlusal view. I, TF 6279 right P/4 in occlusal view. Abbreviations as in Figures 3 and 4, plus: mi, masseter insertion; tso, tusk socket. Scale bars: A = 10 cm, B–I = 1 cm.

Figure 4. A–C in New Proboscideans (Mammalia) from the middle Miocene of Thailand

Figure 4. A–C, Gomphotherium cf. browni. A1, TF 6267f right upper tusk in dorsal, lateral and ventral views (from left to right). A2, schematic representation of the cross-section of a right upper tusk (proximal portion; posterior view). B, TF 6266f right lower tusk: B1, dorsal view (left) and medial view (right); B2, anterior view (not to scale). C, TF 6267e right lower tusk in medial view (left) and dorsal view (right). D, E, Tetralophodon cf. xiaolongtanensis CMu 2-1: D, left M/3 in occlusal view. E, left M2/ in occlusal view. Abbreviations: cf, contact facet; e, enamel band; g, longitudinal groove; wf, wear facet. Scale bars: A = 10 cm, B and C = 5 cm, D and E = 1 cm.

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Proboscidean, tusk ivory. Gray Fossil Site, TN.

Proboscidean, tusk ivory (ETMNH 8716) from Gray Fossil Site, TN. On exhibit at the McClung Museum, University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Source: Objaverse 1.0 / Sketchfab

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Proboscidean pelvis, Gray fossil Site, TN

Source: Objaverse 1.0 / Sketchfab

Figure 3. A–F in Anatomy and phylogenetic value of the mandibular and coronoid canals and their associated foramina in proboscideans (Mammalia)

Figure 3. A–F, horizontal computed tomography (CT) slices of a mandible of Elephas maximus (TMM M-6445) showing the position and path of the mandibular canal and its associated foramina. G, diagrammatic representation of the mandible in left lateral view, illustrating the position of the CT slices depicted in A–F. The course of the mandibular canal is outlined. Abbreviations: a.m2, second molar alveolus; a.m.c., anterior mental canal; a.m.f., anterior mental foramen; co.f., coronoid foramen; co.p., coronoid process; l.m.c., lateral mental canal; m1, first lower molar; ma.c., mandibular canal; ma.f., mandibular foramen; p.m.f., posterior mental foramen.

Figure 4. A–E in Anatomy and phylogenetic value of the mandibular and coronoid canals and their associated foramina in proboscideans (Mammalia)

Figure 4. A–E, sagittal computed tomography (CT) slices of a mandible of Elephas maximus (TMM M-6445) illustrating the position and path of the mandibular canal and its associated foramina. F, diagrammatic representation of the right hemimandible in occlusal view, showing the position of the serial CT slices shown in A–E. Abbreviations: a.m2, second molar alveolus; a.m.c., anterior mental canal; a.m.f., anterior mental foramen; a.r.m1, anterior root of m1; co.f., coronoid foramen; con., condyle; co.p., coronoid process; l.m.c., lateral mental canal; ma.c., mandibular canal; m.fo., mandibular foramen; m1, first lower molar; p.m.f., posterior mental foramen; sym., symphysis.

Figure 1 in Anatomy and phylogenetic value of the mandibular and coronoid canals and their associated foramina in proboscideans (Mammalia)

Figure 1. Schematic representation of the mandible of the basal proboscidean Phosphatherium escuillei depicting the principal anatomical characters of the coronoid and mandibular canals and their associated foramina in proboscideans (modified from Gheerbrant et al., 2005b). A, labial view; B, lingual view. The courses of the mandibular and coronoid canals in P. escuillei are hypothetical and were reconstructed based on the position of the external foramina and by comparison with Moeritherium. Abbreviations: a.m.c., anterior mental canal; a.m.f., anterior mental foramen; con., condyle; co.f., coronoid foramen; co.p., coronoid process; l.m.c., lateral mental canal; ma.c., mandibular canal; ma.f., mandibular foramen; p.m.f., posterior mental foramen; sym., symphysis (section). Arrow indicates the position of the posterior border of the symphysis. Scale bar = 1 cm.

Figure 2. A–G in Anatomy and phylogenetic value of the mandibular and coronoid canals and their associated foramina in proboscideans (Mammalia)

Figure 2. A–G, transversal (coronal) computed tomography (CT) slices of a mandible of Elephas maximus (TMM M-6445) showing the position and path of the mandibular canal and its associated foramina. H, diagrammatic representation of the mandible in occlusal view, illustrating the position of the CT slices depicted in A–G. Abbreviations: a.m2, second molar alveolus; a.m.c., anterior mental canal; a.m.f., anterior mental foramen; co.f., coronoid foramen; co.p., coronoid process; l.m.c., lateral mental canal; m1, first lower molar; ma.c., mandibular canal; p.c., pulpar chamber of m1; p.m.f., posterior mental foramen.

Figure 7 in Anatomy and phylogenetic value of the mandibular and coronoid canals and their associated foramina in proboscideans (Mammalia)

Figure 7. Mandibular rami in medial view illustrating the shape and position of the mandibular foramen amongst various proboscidean taxa. A, Prodeinotherium bavaricum (BSP 1977 I 229; from Huttunen & Göhlich, 2002); B, Phiomia serridens (NHM M9122); C, Mammut americanum (NHM M17187); D, 'Stegomastodon' platensis (MNHN PAM187); E, Loxodonta africana (MZF); F, Elephas maximus (MZF 8065); G, Mammuthus primigenius (IAM 6). Abbreviations: a.m3, alveolus of m3; con., condyle; co.f., coronoid foramen; co.p., coronoid process; l.pr., linguoid process; ma.f., mandibular foramen; m2, second lower molar; m3, third lower molar.

Figure 10 in Anatomy and phylogenetic value of the mandibular and coronoid canals and their associated foramina in proboscideans (Mammalia)

Figure 10. Character mapping analysis of ten mandibular characters on a cladogram of main proboscidean taxa. The original tree by Tassy (1996) was modified (see text for details). Taxa absent from our analysis are shaded. Character changes are displayed by bar with character number over the bar, and evolutionary change below. The changes of the homoplastic character (character 2) are displayed by unfilled bars.

Figure 6 in Anatomy and phylogenetic value of the mandibular and coronoid canals and their associated foramina in proboscideans (Mammalia)

Figure 6. Outline of the path of the mandibular canal in A, Mammut americanum (Mammutidae) and B, Mammuthus primigenius (Elephantidae). The American mastodon exemplifies the primitive condition for elephantoids, with the mandibular canal running labially to the tooth row. In mammoths the mandibular canal is most frequently found lingual to the teeth. Abbreviations: a.m.f., anterior mental foramen; ma.c., mandibular canal; p.m.f., posterior mental canal.